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Funnier if we'd hit record first.

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Would it though?

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Probably not.

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I don't remember us being humorous.

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That was not promised in the podcast contract.

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I mean, looks aren't everything.

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Thank God.

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I mean, for you.

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I'm beautiful.

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Everyone says so.

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No, you have a

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song that you play that says so.

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That's different.

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You leave me and Xtina alone.

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Hello, alleged human, and welcome to the Chaos Lever Podcast.

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My name is Ned, and I'm definitely not a robot.

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I'm a real human person with feelings, DNS records, and DMARC keys.

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Watch out!

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I sign all of my email just like a good human should.

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With me is Chris, who also signs his emails.

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Oh, I sincerely hope that the editors cut the entire front end

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of our conversation so that that quip makes no sense at all.

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Oh, even if the conversation's there, it still doesn't.

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Oh, that's fair.

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All right.

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We need to do a whole show about Haven't we done one about email security?

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I don't know if we ever actually got into SPF, DKIM, and DMARC.

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We did like a lightning round coverage of those things.

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Really what we were talking about is SMTP and why it's a nightmare,

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disaster, hellscape of a protocol that for some reason we're still using.

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All of that is true.

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And now we can move on to all of the weird band aids that

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we've added to get around the Nightmare Hellscape that is SMTP.

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With more to come!

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Yay!

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I love nightmares.

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They keep me from sleeping, and sleep is a little death.

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I got morbid.

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I'm sure it's fine.

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Should we talk about something else?

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Anything else, I think.

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Okay, go for it.

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So, Before I start, I do want to make the preface that I actually

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originally anticipated this having three topics to talk through, and

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by the time I was finished with topic number one, I was out of words.

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Boy, that's never happened before in the history of Chaos Lever.

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Every episode.

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A few weeks ago, though,

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we talked about what can only be described as

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the ineffable weirdness of light, which was fun.

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Yeah.

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I hinted that we were going to do more about quantum

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mechanics and quantum computing in the near future.

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And at the time, I believed me.

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Whoa.

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Then I kept reading about quantum mechanics and quantum computing.

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And here's the thing, that shit's hard.

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Fair.

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Hard to grasp, hard to keep concepts straight in your

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head, hard to remember 30 seconds after you turn the page

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what you just read and do you actually understand it.

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Even

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the best quantum scientists and experts that I've heard

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talk about this stuff, Say they don't really understand it.

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Right.

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It's

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kind of like trying to understand the fifth dimension.

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Right.

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You actually can't understand it.

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It's like trying to draw a four dimensional cube in three dimensional space.

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You just can't, but you can give an approximation

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of what it looks like for a particular plane.

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The best approximation I heard about

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these types of things is like if you have a three dimensional

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cube and you shine light on it and it puts a two dimensional

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shadow on the wall, you sort of get the gist of what the cube is

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if you like move it around in your hand and everything but you're

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never going to actually be able to understand what the cube is.

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Something like a tesseract?

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That's the only way we're ever going to understand it.

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As though it was a shadow on the wall.

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All right, Plato's cave, we get it.

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Moving on.

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What we're going to do is continue down the quantum weirdness rabbit hole

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with some of the essential topics that make quantum computing possible.

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And somewhere along the way, I might even just give you a

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quantum computing example that you can try for yourself at home.

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Ooh, I know how well the split beam experiment went.

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And by at home, I mean, creating an account with IBM and running

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it as a cloud job that runs on one of their available quantum

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computers, because it's 2024 and everything is in the cloud.

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All right.

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I actually got a new washer and dryer and the washer and

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dryer wants to connect to the cloud and I'm just like, why?

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So they can talk to your toaster oven naturally.

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Poor K, suds.

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Poor K.

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Like I said, we set up some of the essentials of why quantum

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is weird, and the topics that I'm going to talk about

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now, we've at least alluded to in the earlier episodes.

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But if we're going to start talking about quantum computing in a

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little bit more focused manner, I think the first thing to do is

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talk actually about what is the same from what we do understand.

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What in the classical world, the classical computing

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world, can we use as an immediate one to one, so that

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we can then understand the quantum stuff from there?

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Okay.

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And what's interesting is, The answer is kind of a lot.

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First, let's do a little review of the fundamental way

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that data is stored or expressed in a classical computer.

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That is our good friend, the bit.

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Hey, bit.

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A bit is pretty simple.

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It's the digital representation of either

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a 1 or a 0 somewhere in a computer system.

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How this is expressed?

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can be wildly varied.

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It can be a voltage difference, it can be an opened or closed

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physical or logical gate, it could be a burn onto an actual CD,

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it could be a blip on a disc that is either full or empty, all

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depending on where that bit is either stored or being processed.

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The point is, the value is only ever 0 or 1.

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If we go back far enough in time, it could be a punched piece of tape.

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Sure can.

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Paper tape, I'll have you know.

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Because I'm a thousand.

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Now if you want an image to go along with this discussion, just imagine

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that you have some coins, like a quarter, laying flat on your desk.

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Let's say that tails is 0 and heads is 1.

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That's your bit.

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When it's heads up, that is worth one.

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Now what's fun is we can start to combine multiples of these.

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So let's say you've got, you've got four quarters on your desk.

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You have four bits of available space to store information,

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depending on the way that some of the coins in the different

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ranks are either heads up or heads down, you will get a number.

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And this is where we're counting from binary into decimal.

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So four bits.

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0, 0, 0, 0.

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What's that worth?

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Zero.

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Good.

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Ooh, I did it!

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Alright, participation time is over.

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Thank God.

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0, 0, 0, 1 is equal to 1.

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And with the quarters, it's the same thing.

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Tails, tails, tails, heads.

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Right?

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This is where the simplicity stops, because 0, 0, 1, 0 is not equal to 10.

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It is equal to 2 in decimal, because we're counting up.

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0011 is equal to 3, so on and so forth, all

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the way up to 1111, which is equal to Fifteen!

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Well done.

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I hex.

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Equal to F, you jerk.

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So, uh, If you're playing along at home, you'll see

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that all four quarters have flipped to be heads up.

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One, one, one, one, or heads, heads, heads, heads.

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It doesn't make a difference, it's the same representation.

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And this is also a demonstration of binary being powers of two.

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A binary system can store the maximum number equal

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to two to the power of the number of bits available.

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And we just demonstrated that.

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We had four coins, two to the fourth is equal to 16.

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Remember, computers start counting from zero, Our top

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number, 1 was 15, therefore making 16 total combinations.

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This, not too complicated, right?

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Right, right.

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Now, these numbers obviously get much larger as we go along.

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If you had a computer that could only process

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4 bits, uh, you wouldn't really be doing this.

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Doing anything.

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No.

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It's the reason why if you look at the specs on any given system, so

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many things are in powers of two, even if they don't need to be, because

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that's just what we've come to accept when it comes to computing.

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So like, memory is still allocated in like, 128 gig.

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Not because it has to be a power of two, it's just that That's what we expect.

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Yeah, that's true.

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I didn't even think about it that way.

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Yeah, there's no reason it can't be 100 gig.

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Like, it doesn't matter at that point.

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The gig is already a power of two.

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Do you remember when virtualization first came out

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and you could create a computer with three CPUs?

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You're like, that's stupid, but I can do it.

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Anyway, we're getting off track.

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So powers of two, binary, zeros and ones.

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What does this have to do with quantum?

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Well, quantum uses what are called qubits.

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These are quantum bits, hence the name, Q and then bits.

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We did it!

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Yay!

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In their base state, a qubit stores a value

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exactly the same as a classical computer does.

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When it is measured, it can have a value of 0 or 1.

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And when you add up all of those bits, you have to answer to the

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quantum question, the data that is stored in there is exactly the same.

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It's powers of 2.

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2 to the 4th, the same amount of data that can be presented in a

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classical system, is the answer from the basis state of a quantum system.

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Now, you might notice that probably sounded super close to the

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same thing, except for a small wrench I threw in at the end there.

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You said basis.

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I feel like that's important.

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Correct.

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Because quantum computing doesn't just do computing, On the basis state.

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Quantum computing can do something, for lack of a better term, in between.

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And that is where the crux of this episode comes

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in with a fun sounding name called superposition.

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I did promise that there would be no math, and I swear I'm going to try.

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I might have to allude to math, hint at it behind the curtain.

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Perhaps quiz me once or twice, jerk.

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Participation time is over.

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Let's continue with the metaphor we had before.

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Remember the four quarters from earlier?

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Well, we can still use them for the four qubit system.

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When the system is at rest, aka when the answer is

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kicked out, the four qubit system has the ability to show

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the exact amount of data that we talked about before.

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Two to the fourths worth, aka 16 possible states.

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And once again, that number gets bigger with the more qubits,

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but we're going to keep it at 4 for simplicity's sake.

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When the system is in action, as in, when the quantum computer is computering,

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technical term, the qubits can have a value either 1 or 0 or both.

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Both is an option.

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Okay.

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So, imagine again, your four quarters.

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For a quantum computer at rest, there are four quarters lying flat on the table.

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A quantum computer that is in operation, those four

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quarters are still on the table, but now they're spinning.

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Ooh, okay.

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And this one you can practice at home.

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This is kind of fun.

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Grab a quarter and spin it on a table.

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When it's in motion, what is its value?

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Is it a head or is it a tail?

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It's indeterminate.

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Exactly.

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You could say things like, it's neither, or it's both, or

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we're not going to know for sure when it lands, until it lands.

243
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All of which is a good correlation to what is actually going on.

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The quarter when spun, and this is actually kind of fun.

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If you look at it closely enough, you can actually see,

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you'll see a flash of heads and then a flash of tails.

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And then a flash of heads, and then eventually it will settle and land.

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This works if you flip it too, which is kind of cool.

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So the way to make sense of this in your head is to consider

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the quarter not as a basic unit of storage like a bit,

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but as a system all on its own that has different states.

252
00:12:35,465 --> 00:12:38,065
When the system is at rest, aka the quarter is

253
00:12:38,065 --> 00:12:40,429
flat on the table, it has a value of either 1 or 2.

254
00:12:40,800 --> 00:12:42,550
One or zero, head or tails.

255
00:12:43,260 --> 00:12:47,319
When the system is in action, AKA doing processing or in

256
00:12:47,319 --> 00:12:50,950
our purposes, spinning, then the superposition says that

257
00:12:50,950 --> 00:12:54,450
the value of that qubit is the sum of the possible outcomes.

258
00:12:55,429 --> 00:12:57,970
This is the only time I'm going to try to math.

259
00:12:58,080 --> 00:12:59,000
So bear with me.

260
00:12:59,429 --> 00:13:01,049
Well, we'll all math together.

261
00:13:01,119 --> 00:13:02,080
It's going to be all right.

262
00:13:02,790 --> 00:13:06,690
When the system is in action, it is about the possibility

263
00:13:06,740 --> 00:13:09,430
of which of these two states is going to come up.

264
00:13:10,020 --> 00:13:11,290
In the case of a quarter.

265
00:13:11,724 --> 00:13:12,614
It's very simple.

266
00:13:12,665 --> 00:13:16,185
It's 50 percent chance heads or 50 percent chance tails.

267
00:13:17,844 --> 00:13:21,415
In the real world, somebody is screaming, I know, that's not actually true.

268
00:13:21,935 --> 00:13:24,514
The coin always has a minuscule advantage

269
00:13:24,514 --> 00:13:26,204
in the potential of it landing on heads.

270
00:13:26,944 --> 00:13:29,074
Also in the way that you flip it, the

271
00:13:29,144 --> 00:13:31,314
surface of the table, et cetera, et cetera.

272
00:13:31,314 --> 00:13:35,974
But this is like one of those physics Formulas where we just assume

273
00:13:35,974 --> 00:13:40,135
friction doesn't exist or, or that like air flow isn't a thing.

274
00:13:40,574 --> 00:13:41,114
It's fine.

275
00:13:42,194 --> 00:13:43,704
Assume gravity doesn't exist.

276
00:13:46,145 --> 00:13:47,954
Okay, so this is a system.

277
00:13:48,294 --> 00:13:51,965
A bit in a classical computer is a physical unit that is either static.

278
00:13:51,965 --> 00:13:55,374
It's a, it's a switch, a light switch, up or down, and that's it.

279
00:13:55,375 --> 00:13:56,114
Mm hmm.

280
00:13:56,599 --> 00:13:59,550
A qubit is a system, and as such, it is not

281
00:13:59,550 --> 00:14:03,739
described by zero or one until the system is at rest.

282
00:14:04,040 --> 00:14:06,250
When the system is in action, it is described by

283
00:14:06,250 --> 00:14:09,719
what's called the psi function, PSI, Greek letter.

284
00:14:10,710 --> 00:14:15,759
The Greek letter psi is equal to alpha sub zero plus alpha, or beta, plus beta.

285
00:14:16,170 --> 00:14:21,980
Sub 1, and what that means is the percentage chance of this qubit coming to

286
00:14:21,980 --> 00:14:29,180
rest as 0 plus the percentage chance of this qubit coming to rest as beta, or 1.

287
00:14:29,880 --> 00:14:31,470
So that would be like 100%?

288
00:14:31,880 --> 00:14:32,420
Correct.

289
00:14:32,479 --> 00:14:37,620
And if it doesn't add up to 100%, congratulations, you failed linear algebra.

290
00:14:38,370 --> 00:14:40,880
Well, I did that anyway, but we don't need to bring that up.

291
00:14:41,245 --> 00:14:44,625
I bring all this up, actually, is just to make people understand the

292
00:14:44,625 --> 00:14:49,405
fundamental difference of how to think about a qubit versus a bit.

293
00:14:50,155 --> 00:14:54,124
Because if you think about it as a system and not a light switch, you

294
00:14:54,125 --> 00:14:58,885
get a little bit more mental freedom to think about why some of the more

295
00:14:58,885 --> 00:15:02,944
crazy things I'm going to talk about in a second can possibly be true.

296
00:15:04,535 --> 00:15:07,185
So you've got this function that it describes the system in

297
00:15:07,185 --> 00:15:10,865
action, the psi function, alpha sub zero plus beta sub one.

298
00:15:11,624 --> 00:15:13,484
Alpha and beta are complex numbers.

299
00:15:13,624 --> 00:15:15,535
Very quickly, things have to be squared.

300
00:15:16,405 --> 00:15:17,995
Like I said, there's a lot of math.

301
00:15:18,155 --> 00:15:19,025
We don't have to get into it.

302
00:15:19,504 --> 00:15:23,495
But the point is, the system in action, that value is

303
00:15:23,495 --> 00:15:26,485
a probability calculation based on that alpha and beta.

304
00:15:27,064 --> 00:15:32,304
When the system is in action, those four quarters are spinning simultaneously.

305
00:15:32,305 --> 00:15:36,285
When the system is at rest, aka the algorithm

306
00:15:36,295 --> 00:15:40,285
has completed, all four quarters collapse.

307
00:15:40,875 --> 00:15:41,615
They are then unbalanced.

308
00:15:42,325 --> 00:15:44,525
Back to being either a 0 or a 1.

309
00:15:44,825 --> 00:15:46,285
And you have your answer.

310
00:15:48,645 --> 00:15:50,535
So, what does this

311
00:15:50,895 --> 00:15:51,355
mean?

312
00:15:51,365 --> 00:15:52,385
Why does it matter?

313
00:15:53,115 --> 00:15:54,244
I am wondering that.

314
00:15:55,504 --> 00:15:57,405
I'm also thinking about the Mandelbrot set.

315
00:15:57,864 --> 00:15:58,455
God bless you.

316
00:15:59,564 --> 00:16:05,035
In short, classical computing can only be in one definite state at one time.

317
00:16:05,375 --> 00:16:08,224
So, all four quarters can only be set in one way.

318
00:16:08,740 --> 00:16:09,800
And then we do something.

319
00:16:10,250 --> 00:16:12,300
Then you set them again, and you do it again.

320
00:16:12,879 --> 00:16:13,270
Mm hmm.

321
00:16:13,750 --> 00:16:16,890
This means that if we were to try to do some kind of process

322
00:16:16,890 --> 00:16:21,379
based on maximizing the checking of all of these different

323
00:16:21,379 --> 00:16:25,360
states, all 16 states, they would have to be done one at a time.

324
00:16:26,040 --> 00:16:28,459
And that is exactly what classical CPUs do.

325
00:16:28,889 --> 00:16:31,750
This is just something that they're extremely

326
00:16:31,750 --> 00:16:34,339
good at, and they do it unbelievably fast.

327
00:16:35,910 --> 00:16:39,229
Due to the nature of quantum computing, and the fundamental difference

328
00:16:39,260 --> 00:16:43,130
imparted by the superposition of these systems in action, however,

329
00:16:43,699 --> 00:16:48,829
a quantum computer can evaluate all 16 states at the same time.

330
00:16:49,109 --> 00:16:49,579
Okay.

331
00:16:49,659 --> 00:16:53,950
That is the miracle of quantum computing and the promise of it.

332
00:16:55,725 --> 00:16:56,735
How do we know this?

333
00:16:57,095 --> 00:16:59,935
Well, I know you're going to be mad, but you're

334
00:16:59,945 --> 00:17:02,095
just going to have to trust me when I say math.

335
00:17:04,135 --> 00:17:06,295
I could go into it, kind of.

336
00:17:06,810 --> 00:17:07,400
But I won't.

337
00:17:08,159 --> 00:17:11,159
But much like we talked about in the quantum mechanics primer, the

338
00:17:11,159 --> 00:17:15,270
math works and the stuff I'm talking about is experimentally proven.

339
00:17:15,929 --> 00:17:20,369
You can look up the algorithms pretty easily and the equations that

340
00:17:20,369 --> 00:17:24,209
explain them, but basically what they do is exactly what I said above.

341
00:17:24,699 --> 00:17:26,920
They mathematically show that the system in action

342
00:17:26,949 --> 00:17:30,469
is considering all possible values simultaneously.

343
00:17:31,229 --> 00:17:35,419
There are actually a number of algorithms that can be used to prove this.

344
00:17:35,810 --> 00:17:39,090
And even easily set up to execute a quantum

345
00:17:39,090 --> 00:17:41,290
program on a quantum computer to do it.

346
00:17:42,330 --> 00:17:44,869
One of the most common is called Grover's Algorithm.

347
00:17:45,339 --> 00:17:47,560
This, again, exists.

348
00:17:47,879 --> 00:17:52,180
And, as we talked about in the State of Quantum episode from way back in May,

349
00:17:52,729 --> 00:17:56,650
the only limitation is that you is the quantum computer error correction,

350
00:17:56,949 --> 00:18:01,429
which at the moment is still enormously hard of a problem to manage.

351
00:18:02,270 --> 00:18:05,760
Right now, quantum computers are still in a state where we

352
00:18:05,760 --> 00:18:09,120
can only do processing against a limited number of qubits

353
00:18:09,769 --> 00:18:13,060
for a limited amount of time, but that's a hardware problem.

354
00:18:14,410 --> 00:18:19,230
So let's set aside the talk about error correction for now and talk

355
00:18:19,240 --> 00:18:23,960
about The theoretical, because once the mechanical problems are

356
00:18:23,960 --> 00:18:28,070
solved, it is going to be possible to do some really crazy stuff.

357
00:18:28,760 --> 00:18:33,220
Does it make sense to stretch the analogy of the, the spinning quarters

358
00:18:33,330 --> 00:18:37,719
to say sort of the hardware component of is you have to make sure that the

359
00:18:37,729 --> 00:18:41,910
surface they're spinning on is absolutely flat and even and consistent for

360
00:18:41,910 --> 00:18:45,740
all the quarters and that maybe you pump all the air out of the chamber

361
00:18:45,740 --> 00:18:48,489
that they're spinning in because you want to remove air resistance.

362
00:18:48,810 --> 00:18:50,330
And you also have to worry about.

363
00:18:50,605 --> 00:18:53,725
Any magnets that are near the quarters that might inform their

364
00:18:53,725 --> 00:18:57,625
spin, and you also want to shave the sides of the quarter so that

365
00:18:57,625 --> 00:19:00,695
it's not weighted towards heads, as you indicated, like, those

366
00:19:00,695 --> 00:19:03,584
are all the weird hardware things that maybe we could draw an

367
00:19:03,584 --> 00:19:07,565
analogy over to what's happening in the quantum computer hardware.

368
00:19:08,055 --> 00:19:08,845
That's a good point.

369
00:19:08,894 --> 00:19:13,105
Yes, and I think that's a good way to describe it too, because While I'm talking

370
00:19:13,115 --> 00:19:17,625
about each individual quarter as a system all by itself, when you try to use

371
00:19:17,625 --> 00:19:25,355
quantum computers to solve a problem, all the qubits together are also a system.

372
00:19:25,855 --> 00:19:28,435
And what that means is, if there is a problem with any piece

373
00:19:28,435 --> 00:19:31,755
of that system, then the calculation completely falls apart.

374
00:19:32,134 --> 00:19:34,764
So in your example, let's say you spun four quarters

375
00:19:34,774 --> 00:19:37,724
on the table, but the table's not completely level.

376
00:19:37,864 --> 00:19:40,744
One of the computers, or one of the computers, one of

377
00:19:40,744 --> 00:19:44,500
the quarters falls off the table, The system is done.

378
00:19:45,460 --> 00:19:46,020
You can't come

379
00:19:46,030 --> 00:19:46,280
back

380
00:19:46,280 --> 00:19:46,949
from

381
00:19:47,230 --> 00:19:47,260
that.

382
00:19:47,260 --> 00:19:47,409
Right.

383
00:19:47,409 --> 00:19:49,879
You can't get meaningful output from that

384
00:19:49,970 --> 00:19:52,090
because the system itself sort of crashed.

385
00:19:52,340 --> 00:19:53,000
Exactly.

386
00:19:53,449 --> 00:19:54,139
And to be fair,

387
00:19:54,159 --> 00:19:56,850
again, this is something that has happened this in the history

388
00:19:56,850 --> 00:19:59,329
of computing all the way back to when we invented computing.

389
00:19:59,860 --> 00:20:03,360
It's just that with classical computers, we have really

390
00:20:03,360 --> 00:20:06,340
solved so many of the problems with error correction.

391
00:20:06,900 --> 00:20:10,340
It reminds me a lot of the move from vacuum tubes that we

392
00:20:10,340 --> 00:20:15,010
talked about last week to transistors and what a change

393
00:20:15,010 --> 00:20:18,120
that was because vacuum tubes would constantly fail.

394
00:20:18,129 --> 00:20:21,840
So half of a Or probably more than a half of the operator's

395
00:20:21,870 --> 00:20:25,080
job was just replacing and finding bad vacuum tubes.

396
00:20:25,310 --> 00:20:27,310
And then suddenly they didn't need to do that anymore.

397
00:20:27,770 --> 00:20:30,549
Yeah, I mean, you have to imagine that life was a little bit more

398
00:20:30,549 --> 00:20:34,180
stressful for people working in a computer room where sometimes

399
00:20:34,180 --> 00:20:37,380
small pieces of the computer would just spontaneously explode.

400
00:20:38,730 --> 00:20:39,740
That's still possible.

401
00:20:39,740 --> 00:20:40,089
Anyway.

402
00:20:40,089 --> 00:20:40,787
All right,

403
00:20:40,787 --> 00:20:43,930
so let's talk about some of the theoretical stuff.

404
00:20:43,930 --> 00:20:44,279
Yeah.

405
00:20:44,279 --> 00:20:47,422
Remember, all of this comes from powers of two.

406
00:20:47,422 --> 00:20:48,469
With two qubits.

407
00:20:51,220 --> 00:20:52,490
You have two to the second.

408
00:20:52,720 --> 00:20:56,720
With four qubits, you have two to the fourth, so 16 combinations of data.

409
00:20:57,160 --> 00:21:02,130
By the time we get up to 10 qubits, we now have 1, 024 possible combinations.

410
00:21:02,830 --> 00:21:08,710
And because of superposition, all 1, 024 combinations can be processed

411
00:21:09,070 --> 00:21:13,650
simultaneously, not sequentially like a classical computer does.

412
00:21:15,610 --> 00:21:20,250
By the time you get to a shockingly small number of functional qubits,

413
00:21:20,310 --> 00:21:25,955
like say 300, You're talking about being able to process a number of

414
00:21:26,065 --> 00:21:29,795
different variations higher than the total number of atoms in the universe.

415
00:21:30,415 --> 00:21:30,745
Oh.

416
00:21:32,064 --> 00:21:35,705
Side point, thinking about exponentials is one of the weirdest

417
00:21:35,705 --> 00:21:38,585
things that you have to learn to do when you do math at all, ever.

418
00:21:39,055 --> 00:21:42,765
And I think a lot of people still don't grasp it, but if you're

419
00:21:42,765 --> 00:21:46,835
curious and you want to see the power of exponential growth, I'm going

420
00:21:46,835 --> 00:21:50,750
to throw a link in the show notes to a world famous, uh, 9 minute

421
00:21:50,750 --> 00:21:55,330
video that came out in, I want to say 1977, called Powers of 10.

422
00:21:56,110 --> 00:22:02,970
All this video does is shows a camera pulling back to the power of 10

423
00:22:02,979 --> 00:22:08,119
distance away from a couple that is sitting on a blanket having a picnic.

424
00:22:08,600 --> 00:22:11,510
Every 10 seconds they go back one more power of 10.

425
00:22:12,189 --> 00:22:14,990
10 to the second, 10 to the third, 10 to the fourth, 10 to the fifth.

426
00:22:15,590 --> 00:22:19,440
You will be shocked how quickly you leave earth.

427
00:22:20,284 --> 00:22:21,034
Or maybe you won't.

428
00:22:22,975 --> 00:22:25,705
Anyway, if people have never seen this before, I highly recommend it.

429
00:22:25,905 --> 00:22:27,345
It's a little dated cause it came out in

430
00:22:27,355 --> 00:22:29,155
the seventies, but it's still really cool.

431
00:22:29,165 --> 00:22:30,425
A lot of bell bottoms.

432
00:22:30,495 --> 00:22:31,065
I get it.

433
00:22:31,335 --> 00:22:33,055
There's a lot of copycats out there.

434
00:22:33,055 --> 00:22:35,715
So I always try to, you know, link people to the original.

435
00:22:36,244 --> 00:22:36,595
All right.

436
00:22:36,945 --> 00:22:40,094
Anyway, let's look at this from the way that it

437
00:22:40,094 --> 00:22:43,334
is done from both classical and quantum computing.

438
00:22:44,384 --> 00:22:50,464
Let's say you're trying to find a specific item in a list of N items.

439
00:22:51,345 --> 00:22:53,485
N being any random large number.

440
00:22:54,235 --> 00:22:57,045
A classical computer would basically just start at

441
00:22:57,045 --> 00:22:59,435
the beginning of the list and try item number one.

442
00:23:01,004 --> 00:23:03,325
If it doesn't work, then it goes to try number two.

443
00:23:03,325 --> 00:23:06,485
If that doesn't work, then it tries number three.

444
00:23:07,555 --> 00:23:08,725
Etc, etc, etc.

445
00:23:08,735 --> 00:23:11,385
This is also known as brute forcing to find a solution.

446
00:23:12,584 --> 00:23:15,034
Now this relies on the fact that everything about this list

447
00:23:15,034 --> 00:23:18,555
is effectively random and there's no way to shortcut the sort.

448
00:23:19,074 --> 00:23:21,314
Because I know for sure there are ways to do, like,

449
00:23:21,314 --> 00:23:23,524
sorting and searching better than what I'm talking about.

450
00:23:24,524 --> 00:23:28,794
But for certain types of unstructured databases, this is the only option.

451
00:23:29,474 --> 00:23:30,385
Just picking up cards.

452
00:23:30,495 --> 00:23:30,905
Nope.

453
00:23:31,235 --> 00:23:31,574
Nope.

454
00:23:31,855 --> 00:23:32,195
Nope.

455
00:23:33,025 --> 00:23:33,694
Found it!

456
00:23:33,934 --> 00:23:34,514
Correct.

457
00:23:35,145 --> 00:23:38,914
A quantum computer, however, with a sufficient amount of functional qubits

458
00:23:38,955 --> 00:23:43,965
in a system, would simply initialize the superposition of all of those

459
00:23:43,995 --> 00:23:49,275
possible states, check them all at once, And mark the correct answer.

460
00:23:50,215 --> 00:23:55,185
Even though processing by qubit is wildly slower than processing

461
00:23:55,185 --> 00:23:59,965
by classical CPU, and even though the quantum algorithm requires

462
00:23:59,965 --> 00:24:07,584
it to be run multiple times to be sure, this process is faster.

463
00:24:09,035 --> 00:24:14,155
The classical operation will be slower once you cross a certain number of items.

464
00:24:14,909 --> 00:24:19,560
No matter what, because the classical operation increases in speed by

465
00:24:19,730 --> 00:24:24,159
a linear fashion, meaning the more things that you have to search, the

466
00:24:24,159 --> 00:24:27,330
longer it's going to take based on the number of things you have to search.

467
00:24:29,149 --> 00:24:34,460
The quantum computer, based off of Grover's algorithm, will complete with

468
00:24:34,479 --> 00:24:39,559
a total number of runs equal to the square root of the number of values.

469
00:24:40,739 --> 00:24:46,004
So if operation time is one second, and you have A hundred items.

470
00:24:46,574 --> 00:24:50,545
Then a classical CPU will be done in 100 seconds, right?

471
00:24:50,545 --> 00:24:52,455
It's a straight linear progression.

472
00:24:53,665 --> 00:24:56,645
The same search in a quantum computer based on Grover's

473
00:24:56,705 --> 00:24:59,464
algorithm will be completed in the square root of 100.

474
00:25:00,504 --> 00:25:01,195
Which is A.

475
00:25:01,614 --> 00:25:05,225
I should probably have checked that or had a calculator up.

476
00:25:05,665 --> 00:25:06,395
Is it 10?

477
00:25:06,685 --> 00:25:07,424
It might be 10.

478
00:25:07,674 --> 00:25:08,694
That's what I said, A.

479
00:25:10,114 --> 00:25:11,554
You're gonna smack me at some point.

480
00:25:14,004 --> 00:25:16,364
I'm great at math, I think is what we've learned.

481
00:25:16,735 --> 00:25:17,144
Indeed.

482
00:25:17,795 --> 00:25:19,815
Now, think about this too.

483
00:25:20,594 --> 00:25:24,904
The larger that the number is, the larger that N is in this example,

484
00:25:25,685 --> 00:25:30,970
the more efficient the quantum computer is going to be at this thing.

485
00:25:30,970 --> 00:25:32,010
Mm hmm.

486
00:25:32,580 --> 00:25:36,689
So, this leads us into what people are always fearing, which is

487
00:25:36,939 --> 00:25:40,159
quantum computing is going to destroy encryption as we know it.

488
00:25:41,909 --> 00:25:45,049
Remember, many kinds of encryption, RSA encryption to

489
00:25:45,049 --> 00:25:48,789
be specific, but there's a lot of them, is based on

490
00:25:48,790 --> 00:25:51,850
trying to solve a math problem, like a division problem.

491
00:25:52,419 --> 00:25:55,560
Just one with excruciatingly large numbers.

492
00:25:56,395 --> 00:25:59,175
Obviously, I'm simplifying it, but honestly, I'm not simplifying

493
00:25:59,175 --> 00:25:59,825
it by much.

494
00:25:59,945 --> 00:26:00,695
Not by much.

495
00:26:00,695 --> 00:26:03,435
That's pretty much what all modern cryptography

496
00:26:03,435 --> 00:26:06,445
is based off of, is really large numbers.

497
00:26:06,525 --> 00:26:06,875
Right.

498
00:26:06,924 --> 00:26:07,474
Factors.

499
00:26:08,155 --> 00:26:11,465
A quantum system with an appropriate number of fault tolerant qubits

500
00:26:11,515 --> 00:26:15,505
will be able to hold all the possible numbers that could be the answer?

501
00:26:16,135 --> 00:26:18,545
And process them simultaneously.

502
00:26:19,255 --> 00:26:19,725
Out.

503
00:26:21,534 --> 00:26:26,555
It should be said that there is plenty of research to say that the concerns

504
00:26:26,565 --> 00:26:31,345
of quantum instantly rendering RSA security moot is a bit overblown.

505
00:26:31,885 --> 00:26:36,915
A report from just last year from Fujitsu Labs pessimistically

506
00:26:36,935 --> 00:26:40,895
estimated it would take 10, 000 fault tolerant qubits,

507
00:26:41,265 --> 00:26:46,775
quote, about 104 days to successfully crack RSA 2048.

508
00:26:47,925 --> 00:26:51,475
And there are some other people that even think that number is optimistic.

509
00:26:52,205 --> 00:26:58,895
Still, 104 days is a hell of a lot better than the classical computer

510
00:26:58,904 --> 00:27:05,415
estimate for cracking RSA2048, which is something like 28, 000 Million years.

511
00:27:06,205 --> 00:27:07,195
Slightly longer.

512
00:27:08,165 --> 00:27:10,534
So what's this IBM thing that you were mentioning,

513
00:27:10,694 --> 00:27:12,955
that if people want to try it out for themselves?

514
00:27:13,844 --> 00:27:20,975
So IBM is committed to educating people about quantum in

515
00:27:20,975 --> 00:27:26,274
a way that is, it seems to me, honest and not cynical.

516
00:27:27,455 --> 00:27:29,145
They have a website called learning.

517
00:27:29,365 --> 00:27:29,865
quantum.

518
00:27:29,975 --> 00:27:30,735
ibm.

519
00:27:30,735 --> 00:27:31,075
com.

520
00:27:31,225 --> 00:27:35,255
You can go there, you can create an account for free, you can

521
00:27:35,255 --> 00:27:38,155
run through some of the classes that they have, the video on

522
00:27:38,155 --> 00:27:42,314
demand type of classes, you can run jobs against their quantum

523
00:27:42,315 --> 00:27:47,335
computers, and you can do ten minutes worth of quantum jobs a month.

524
00:27:47,840 --> 00:27:48,760
Completely for free.

525
00:27:49,590 --> 00:27:50,139
Wow.

526
00:27:50,370 --> 00:27:50,879
Okay.

527
00:27:51,100 --> 00:27:54,889
One of the classes is called the Fundamentals of Quantum

528
00:27:54,889 --> 00:27:59,499
Computing and class number two, or lecture number two, I

529
00:27:59,499 --> 00:28:02,879
guess I should say in that class is called Grover's Algorithm.

530
00:28:03,659 --> 00:28:05,600
So it explains what their algorithm does.

531
00:28:05,659 --> 00:28:08,199
It explains how to do the programming and

532
00:28:08,330 --> 00:28:10,779
send the job to IBM's quantum computers.

533
00:28:11,150 --> 00:28:14,270
And it gives you the interface for how to actually do it.

534
00:28:14,970 --> 00:28:19,554
And what's cool is since this is a known solved problem, They also will

535
00:28:19,554 --> 00:28:23,884
tell you how much time out of your 10 minutes of quantum computing per month

536
00:28:23,905 --> 00:28:28,044
you're allowed to have for free this particular job is estimated to run.

537
00:28:28,924 --> 00:28:32,165
When you do these things, realize that they're

538
00:28:32,165 --> 00:28:38,434
going to be run on like 2, 3, 4, at the most.

539
00:28:39,594 --> 00:28:42,764
This is proof of concept type of stuff, and that's fine.

540
00:28:43,710 --> 00:28:46,390
These are also the systems that we can run in a stable way.

541
00:28:46,400 --> 00:28:48,600
Because when you get to the numbers that we talked about a few

542
00:28:48,600 --> 00:28:54,080
months ago, like four or five hundred or a thousand qubits, you

543
00:28:54,080 --> 00:28:56,869
can't run a system that big because of the error correction problem.

544
00:28:57,250 --> 00:29:00,250
And even if you did, it would take longer than 10 minutes to run.

545
00:29:02,259 --> 00:29:05,450
And I think it's interesting you mentioned the whole Fujitsu thing and

546
00:29:05,460 --> 00:29:11,890
the estimate of, was it 104 days with 10, 000 Fault tolerant qubits.

547
00:29:12,620 --> 00:29:15,480
That's what the algorithms that we've developed so far.

548
00:29:16,000 --> 00:29:16,570
Great point.

549
00:29:17,020 --> 00:29:21,050
There's a really good chance, as computing does, that we will find more

550
00:29:21,050 --> 00:29:25,860
efficient algorithms and we will find a way for qubits to process quicker.

551
00:29:26,639 --> 00:29:30,529
The idea that we would have processors in our pockets that

552
00:29:30,530 --> 00:29:35,170
ran at 3 gigahertz would have been ludicrous 40 years ago.

553
00:29:35,990 --> 00:29:36,190
Yeah.

554
00:29:36,190 --> 00:29:37,910
And now it's commonplace.

555
00:29:38,615 --> 00:29:40,515
And I expect a similar thing will happen with

556
00:29:40,535 --> 00:29:43,315
quantum, but maybe on a slightly different scale.

557
00:29:43,865 --> 00:29:45,135
Yes, I would agree.

558
00:29:45,265 --> 00:29:48,265
And something to keep in mind is, much like the development

559
00:29:48,265 --> 00:29:52,085
of quantum mechanics as a science, it all starts as theory.

560
00:29:53,395 --> 00:29:55,854
And then you get to the point where the equipment catches

561
00:29:55,854 --> 00:29:57,885
up with the theory, and you can test these things.

562
00:29:58,550 --> 00:30:02,920
And the second that those two things can work hand in hand, we will see,

563
00:30:03,530 --> 00:30:08,320
no pun intended, quantum leaps forward in both equipment and algorithms.

564
00:30:08,730 --> 00:30:12,070
That's essentially what happened with AI in the last five to ten years.

565
00:30:12,159 --> 00:30:12,469
Yeah.

566
00:30:12,520 --> 00:30:14,380
Is the hardware caught up with the theory.

567
00:30:15,080 --> 00:30:18,540
And then, well, it remains to be seen whether it's

568
00:30:18,540 --> 00:30:21,540
good or bad, but it certainly has accelerated.

569
00:30:21,830 --> 00:30:22,900
It happened.

570
00:30:24,780 --> 00:30:25,639
We were there.

571
00:30:25,970 --> 00:30:26,580
Hooray.

572
00:30:27,630 --> 00:30:28,970
Well, hey, thanks for listening or something.

573
00:30:28,970 --> 00:30:31,679
I guess you found it worthwhile enough if you made it all the way to the end.

574
00:30:31,679 --> 00:30:33,260
So congratulations to you, friend.

575
00:30:33,409 --> 00:30:34,670
You accomplished something today.

576
00:30:34,919 --> 00:30:37,510
Now you can go sit on the couch, eat a chili dog,

577
00:30:37,590 --> 00:30:41,310
and while away your time with the Grover equation.

578
00:30:41,810 --> 00:30:43,170
Maybe Elmo will show up too.

579
00:30:43,290 --> 00:30:43,830
Who knows?

580
00:30:44,670 --> 00:30:46,970
You can find more about the show by visiting our LinkedIn page.

581
00:30:46,970 --> 00:30:50,590
Just search Chaos Lever or go to our website, ChaosLever.

582
00:30:50,590 --> 00:30:53,860
com, where you'll find show notes, blog posts, and general tomfoolery.

583
00:30:54,049 --> 00:30:56,400
We'll be back next week to see what fresh hell is upon us.

584
00:30:56,560 --> 00:30:57,430
Ta ta for now.

585
00:31:05,899 --> 00:31:08,020
I was really waiting for you to make, like, a Sesame Street

586
00:31:08,020 --> 00:31:11,180
joke, and you just didn't, and I'm disappointed in you.

587
00:31:12,160 --> 00:31:14,070
Well, the other one that I was going to talk about, but we

588
00:31:14,070 --> 00:31:16,380
ran out of time, was Shor's algorithm, and then I was going to

589
00:31:16,380 --> 00:31:19,180
make a lot of jokes about the beach, so I was just unprepared.

590
00:31:20,710 --> 00:31:20,830
The

591
00:31:20,830 --> 00:31:21,190
count

592
00:31:21,200 --> 00:31:22,050
was right there.

593
00:31:22,550 --> 00:31:24,460
Uh, uh, uh.