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This is an essential guide for educators, administrators, policymakers, and the media. Glossaries are dynamic expressions of current language usage. Education has changed dramatically in recent years, and so must also the language used to describe and define them. We believe this glossary is useful for a wider field of educators promoting student success. This glossary provides precise language and definitions to use when communicating with peers and more effectively influencing administrators, legislators, and the media.
Transitional Courses and Programs
This category describes the wide array of approaches for meeting the academic and social needs of students as they make the transition from secondary to postsecondary education. Two new terms provide an umbrella for these approaches: transitional courses and transitional programs. Some approaches have been recently created to replace remedial-level and developmental-level courses, which are out of favor with many policymakers and college administrators.
academic preparatory academy
1. Definition: An equivalent high school education program that contains core academic content, including a college preparatory curriculum. This approach is now more prevalent in the United Kingdom. Previously, these academies operated in the United States before the creation or junior colleges or community colleges.
2. Compare with ACCESS EDUCATION and DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION.
accelerated developmental-level course
1. Definition: Condensing academic content to be completed in less than a traditional academic term. However, the total time spent to complete the course usually includes extra instructional/contact hours.
2. Compare with ACCELERATION THROUGH CURRICULAR REDESIGN, ACCELERATION, COMPRESSED DEVELOPMENTAL-LEVEL COURSE, CO-REQUISITE PAIRED COURSE, and GUIDED PATHWAYS.
acceleration
1. Definitions: (a) “Reorganization of instruction and curricula in ways that facilitate the completion of educational requirements in an expedited manner” (Edgecombe, 2011, p. 4). Other terms used to describe this approach include intensive, compressed, condensed, and time-shortened; and (b) Multiple courses in an academic sequence may be completed within the same academic term.
2. Compare with ACCELERATION THROUGH CURRICULAR REDESIGN, ACCELERATION THROUGH MAINSTREAMING, COMPRESSED DEVELOPMENTAL-LEVEL COURSE, EMBEDDED ACADEMIC SUPPORT, GUIDED PATHWAYS, and MODULAR LEARNING.
acceleration through curricular redesign
1. Definitions: (a) “Reduction of time to complete developmental-level course requirements by decreasing the required courses. Course reductions are accomplished through the elimination of redundant content and modification of the remaining curriculum to meet learning objectives. For example, the curricula of multiple developmental-level courses may be consolidated into a single-term course. Often, these new courses require additional instructional contact hours and therefore are offered more credit than their legacy courses. However, this is not common for all redesigned courses; and (b) Elimination of developmental-level courses and incorporation into college-level courses of basic skills development” (Edgecombe, 2011, p. 14).
2. Compare with ACCELERATION, ACCELERATION THROUGH MAINSTREAMING, COMPRESSED DEVELOPMENTAL-LEVEL COURSE, EMBEDDED ACADEMIC SUPPORT, GUIDED PATHWAYS, and MODULAR LEARNING.
acceleration through mainstreaming
1. Definitions: (a) Placement into college-level courses of students who are close to required placement scores on the assumption that these students are similar or indistinguishable from their college-ready peers (Calcagno & Long, 2008); (b) This curricular approach is also called an ACCELERATED LEARNING PROGRAM; (c) Admission of students into college-level courses despite ASSESSMENT scores placing them in DEVELOPMENTAL-LEVEL COURSES while providing additional assistance through a required CO-REQUISITE COURSE, INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY lab sessions, or other learning supports (Edgecombe, 2011); and (d) Provision to all of the beneficial academic support embedded into class sessions through INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY modules, in-class tutors, and out-of-class resources such as COURSE-BASED LEARNING ASSISTANCE, LEARNING ASSISTANCE, LEARNING ASSISTANCE CENTER, DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION PROGRAM, REMEDIAL EDUCATION PROGRAM, LEARNING ASSISTANCE PROGRAM, or other means.
2. Compare with BASIC ACADEMIC SKILLS.
access education
1. Definitions: (a) A program of study for STUDENTS HISTORICALLY UNDERREPRESENTED to prepare for postsecondary admission; and (b) A term used to describe programs in Europe and other locations that are comparable to U.S. DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION.
2. Compare with ACADEMIC PREPARATORY ACADEMY and DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION.
bridge program
1. Definitions: (a) “Programs designed to facilitate the transition from adult basic education, programs to postsecondary educational institutions. Through participation in transition programs, learners build academic literacy skills, social capital, and acquire strategies for success in college and vocational training” (Collins & O’Brien, 2011, p. 53); Support students through multiple transition points throughout secondary and postsecondary education. Often these programs serve students who may be first-generation college students, historically-underrepresented, economically-disadvantaged, and lacking social capital commonly held by privileged students.
2. Examples: TRIO programs such as Upward Bound, Student Support Services, and McNair Scholars program.
3. Compare with FIRST-YEAR COLLEGE PROGRAM, TRANSITION PROGRAM, and TRIO.
college access
1. Definition: Coordinated gateway path of GATEWAY COURSES to prepare students for postsecondary institutions that are well aligned with student's interests and capabilities (Page & Scott-Clayton, 2015)
compensatory education
1. Definitions: (a) Educational activities that amend a previous state of discrimination due to their demographic profile such as being economically disadvantaged; and (b) Activities and services provided through civil rights legislation for students who are eligible for participation due to past discrimination because of their ethnic, social, or economic group.
2. Example: TRIO programs such as Upward Bound, Student Support Services, and McNair Scholars Program.
3. Compare with DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION, DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION PROGRAM, DISABILITY SERVICES, REMEDIAL EDUCATION, and REMEDIAL EDUCATION PROGRAM.
compressed developmental-level course (or compressed skills instruction)
1. Definitions: (a) “Combination of multiple, sequential DEVELOPMENTAL-LEVEL COURSES in one academic term instead of two or more. Typically, the content of a single course is compressed into a seven- or eight-week segment, followed immediately by the next course in the sequence, also taught in a compressed format. Notably, students register for at least two sequential courses at the start of the term to normalize enrollment in the subsequent course. Although the course length is shortened, the instructional contact hours are the same as in a traditional 16-week course. Therefore, depending on scheduling, class periods tend to be longer and require instructors to modify lesson plans. Students receive grades for each compressed course. If students do not pass the first course, they are not permitted to move on to the second” (Edgecombe, 2011, p. 8); and (b) COMPRESSED COURSES refers to most any academic course that lasts less than the standard academic term (semester or quarter) and often lasts six to eight weeks in length.
2, Compare with ACCELERATION, ACCELERATION THROUGH CURRICULAR REDESIGN, and ACCELERATION THROUGH MAINSTREAMING, DEVELOPMENTAL-LEVEL COURSE, EMBEDDED ACADEMIC SUPPORT, GUIDED PATHWAYS, and MODULAR LEARNING.
contextualized learning
1. Definitions: (a) Learning in instructional settings that focus on how academic skills are applied in the content area; (b) Course content related to a student’s program of study or meta-majors; and (c) “Educators to relate subject matter content to real-world situations and motivate students to make connections between knowledge and its practical applications to their lives as family members, citizens, and workers” (Florida Department of Education, n.d., para. 16).
2. Examples: (a) students make connections between past historical events in their assigned readings and today’s news headlines; and (b) students make applications of a scientific experiment and application to solving a real-world problem.
co-requisite paired course
1. Definitions: (a) College-level course paired with an intervention that supports student learning in that course. The paired component (DEVELOPMENTAL-LEVEL COURSE, MODULAR LEARNING, or other) provides support aligned directly with the learning outcomes, instruction, and assessment of the COLLEGE-LEVEL course and makes necessary adjustments as needed in order to advance students’ success in the COLLEGE-LEVEL course (AMATYC & NADE, 2018). “For example, an upper-level developmental writing course may be paired with a college-level literature course to provide students the opportunity to develop their skills. This interaction could be bolstered both through co-teaching by two instructors and by a syllabus that fully integrates the content of both courses. CO-REQUISITE PAIRED COURSES are offered as a unit, which means the same students are in each class” (Edgecombe, 2011, p. 9); and (b) Supplemental credit instruction while a student is concurrently enrolled in a credit-bearing course. For example, students enrolled in a credit-bearing course would take a related lab/course to supplement their learning (S.B. 1720, 2013).
2. Compare with ACCELERATION, ACCELERATION THROUGH CURRICULAR REDESIGN, COLLEGE LEVEL, DEVELOPMENTAL-LEVEL COURSE, GATEWAY COURSE, and LEARNING COMMUNITIES.
course redesign
1. Definitions: (a) A deliberate process to heavily redesign an existing college course that often is the gatekeeper to academic majors and often results in high rates of D, F, Withdrawal, and Incomplete grades. Often a pedagogical shift is a key component to COURSE REDESIGN. Commonly, this process requires a team of faculty members, instructional designers, and increasing student involvement; and (b) An umbrella term that is used to describe the renovation of traditional approaches to DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION that result in a heavily renovated or replacement curriculum that counts towards college graduation requirements.
2. Examples: COREQUISITE COURSE, MODULAR COURSE, and PAIRED-COURSE.
3. Compare with DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION, GATEWAYS TO COMPLETION®, REMEDIAL EDUCATION, and STUDENTS AS PARTNERS.
developmental education
1. Definition: “Courses or services provided for the purpose of helping underprepared college students attain their academic goals. These courses and services are guided by the principles of adult learning and development” (Boylan, 2002, p. 3).
2. Compare with DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATOR, REMEDIAL EDUCATION, and MULTICULTURAL DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION.
developmental education program
1. Definitions: (a) If centralized, a program that provides courses, supports, and other programming in a single administrative unit; and (b) If decentralized, a variety of academic courses, supports, and other programming administered by multiple administrative units.
2. Compare with LEARNING ASSISTANCE PROGRAM and REMEDIAL EDUCATION PROGRAM.
developmental-level course
1. Definition: Any course built upon existing skills to prepare students for college-level coursework.
2. Compare with COLLEGE-LEVEL, REMEDIAL-LEVEL ENGLISH COURSE, REMEDIAL-LEVEL MATHEMATICS COURSE, REMEDIAL-LEVEL READING COURSE, and VIDEO-BASED SUPPLEMENTAL INSTRUCTION.
developmental-level mathematics course
1. Definitions: (a) “Precollegiate mathematics course that may contain one or more of the following topics: math symbolism, geometry and measurement, functions, discrete math algorithms, probability and statistics, and deductive proofs; and (b) Specialized mathematics instruction for students who do not meet entry into a college-level mathematics course” (Arendale et al., 2007, p. 18).
2. Compare with COLLEGE-LEVEL MATHEMATICS SKILLS and REMEDIAL-LEVEL MATHEMATICS COURSE.
developmental-level reading course
1. Definitions: (a) “Instruction in which the primary purpose is to build upon students’ existing reading skills and background knowledge to enable them to become proficient in processing and learning college-level reading material; and (b) Any reading instruction at the college level that includes study skills, learning strategies, and strategic learning approaches necessary to master college-level material efficiently and effectively” (Arendale et al., 2007, p. 18).
2. Compare with COLLEGE-LEVEL READING SKILLS and REMEDIAL-LEVEL READING COURSE.
developmental-level writing course
1. Definitions: (a) “Instruction for those who have not yet mastered the basic composition skills necessary to write at the college level; and (b) Specialized instruction for students who do not meet entry requirements for a college-level writing course” (Arendale et al., 2007, p. 19).
2. Compare with REMEDIAL ENGLISH COURSE and COLLEGE-LEVEL WRITING SKILLS.
emporium-style model
1. Definition: “Eliminating lecture and using interactive computer software combined with personalized, on-demand assistance. The core principles are (1) Students spend the bulk of their course time doing math problems rather than listening to someone talk about doing them (2) Students spend more time on things they don’t understand and less time on things they have already mastered (3) Students get assistance when they encounter problems and (4) Students are required to do math” (Twigg, 2011, pp. 26–27).
2. Compare with FLIPPED CLASSROOM.
first-year experience course
1. Definitions: (a) Course offered in the first year of college that explores important information and skills essential for success in both the academic and social dimensions of college life; (b) common topics in such courses include: developing intellectual and academic competence, establishing interpersonal relationships, exploring identity development, investigating careers, increasing knowledge of health and wellness, considering faith and spiritual dimensions of life, developing multicultural awareness, and understanding civic responsibility (Upcraft et al., 2005); and (c) “The general goals of FIRST-YEAR EXPERIENCE COURSES are to support the academic performance, social development, persistence, and degree completion of college students. Additionally, FIRST-YEAR EXPERIENCE COURSES often aim to increase students’ sense of campus community and connection to their institutions, while giving students the opportunity to interact with faculty and peers. While courses vary in terms of content and focus, most First Year Experience Courses are designed to introduce students to campus resources, time management, study skills, career planning, cultural diversity, and student development issues” (U.S. Department of Education, 2016. p. 1)
2. Examples: Career exploration, study skill instruction, time management skills, and other topics that can increase student success at college.
3. Compare with BRIDGE PROGRAM, FIRST-YEAR EXPERIENCE PROGRAM, and ORIENTATION PROGRAM.
first-year experience program
1. Definition: A coordinated approach to easing the transition of new students to college through one or more FIRST-YEAR EXPERIENCE COURSES, academic advising, orientation, and other experiences.
2. Compare with BRIDGE PROGRAM, FIRST-YEAR EXPERIENCE COURSE, and ORIENTATION PROGRAM.
gateway course
1. Definition: Course necessary for admission to or progress through an academic major and usually containing material of which thorough mastery is required for success in completing other course requirements for the major.
2. Compare with GENERAL EDUCATION, CO-REQUISITE PAIRED COURSE, and GUIDED PATHWAYS.
Gateways to Completion®
1. Definition: “An evidence-based process to create an institutional multi-year plan for improving student learning and success in high-enrollment courses that have historically resulted in high rates of Ds, Fs, Withdrawals, and Incompletes especially for low-income, first-generation, and historically underrepresented students. This multi-year process helps institutions create and implement a plan for course redesign that supports teaching, learning, success, completion, and retention” (Gardner Institute, 2019, para. 1).
2. Compare with GENERAL EDUCATION, GATEWAY COURSE, and GUIDED PATHWAY.
guided pathways
1. Definitions: (a) Curricular approach presenting courses in the context of highly structured, educationally coherent program maps. Students make progress through their chosen program of study in a logical sequence of prerequisites and courses. Student services resources such as advising and course registration are designed to help students identify their academic goals early in their academic career; and (b) Course requirements for an academic major that provide appropriately differing paths through required developmental-level and introductory college-level courses.
2. Example: Math pathway that includes quantitative reasoning and algebra alternatives at both the developmental and college level.
3. Compare with ACCELERATION, ACCELERATION THROUGH CURRICULAR REDESIGN, CONTEXTUALIZED LEARNING, and GATEWAY COURSE.
integrated reading and writing
1. Definition: Curricular model (originally called Basic Reading/Basic Writing; see Petrosky & Bartholomae, 1986) originated in the 1980s at the University of Pittsburgh. This model assumes that reading and writing are parallel meaning-making processes. For a history of the model’s evolution, see Armstrong et al., 2018.
learning communities
1. Definition: Curricular approach that enrolls a common cohort of students in a restructured learning environment that builds connections among students and curriculum. There are different models for accomplishing this: linked courses, learning clusters, first-year interest groups, federated learning communities, and coordinated studies (Gabelnick et al., 1990; Malnarich et al., 2003).
2. Compare with CO-REQUISITE PAIRED COURSE.
modular learning
1. Definition: Replacement of academic-term-length developmental-level courses by short-term learning units based on assessed instructional needs followed by competency assessment of learning before progress to the next assigned unit. Students complete the identified units independently using computer-based software. They may complete them at their own speed and in a central computer lab staffed with instructional resource personnel or individually at locations of their choice or through embedded instructional supports (both the instructor and/or tutors) which is like the EMPORIUM STYLE MODEL. The time to complete is shorter because students work only on units identified as necessary rather than the entire curriculum of a traditional course. MODULAR LEARNING refers to any course, not just developmental, as used in Keller’s PSI in psychology and other academic subject areas.
2. Compare with ACCELERATION, ACCELERATED DEVELOPMENTAL-LEVEL COURSE, ACCELERATION THROUGH CURRICULAR REDESIGN, COMPRESSED DEVELOPMENTAL-LEVEL COURSE, and EMPORIUM STYLE MODEL.
orientation course and program
1. Definitions: (a) Program developed to introduce students to a postsecondary institution's academic and social culture and its facilities, programs, traditions, and services. Such programs may vary considerably among institutions in their length, scope, timing, and content; (b) A meeting or series of meetings held at the beginning of employment to provide information and other matters; and (c) An introductory set of activities for providing information about an institution’s mission, programs, and procedures to anyone new to the institution (Upcraft et al., 2005).
2. Compare with FIRST-YEAR EXPERIENCE COURSE and PEER EDUCATION.
remedial education
1. Definitions: (a) “Process that corrects a deficit in student behaviors or skills. Such an approach is narrowly focused on the academic content as opposed to DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION, which focuses more broadly on the whole learner; (b) Instruction designed to remove a student’s deficiencies in one or more basic academic skills (e.g., math, reading, writing) to reach a level of proficiency achieved by most secondary school graduates. Additional instruction may be required, including DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION, for the student to be prepared for the rigor of college-level courses; and (c) Academic content taught previously in a middle or secondary school as opposed to DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION, which focuses more often on skills and knowledge needed for college-level academic content material and skills” (Kapel et al., 1991, pp. 478–479).
2. Compare with DEVELOPMENTAL, DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION, LEARNING ASSISTANCE, and MULTICULTURAL DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION.
remedial education program
1. Definition: “Group of courses or activities to help learners achieve basic skills in their identified academic deficit areas in preparation for postsecondary education” (Arendale et al., 2007, p. 26).
2. Compare with DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION PROGRAM and LEARNING ASSISTANCE PROGRAM.
remedial-level English course
1. Definitions: (a) “Instruction for students who have not yet mastered the basic sentence mechanics, grammar usage, and punctuation skills necessary to write at the college level; and (b) Specialized English instruction for students who do not meet entry into a DEVELOPMENTAL-LEVEL WRITING COURSE” (Arendale et al., 2007, pp.26–27).
2. Compare with DEVELOPMENTAL-LEVEL WRITING COURSE and COLLEGE-LEVEL WRITING SKILLS.
remedial-level mathematics course
1. Definitions: (a) “Instruction for students who have not yet mastered the skills necessary for competency with mathematics at the college level. These skills may include one or more of the following: arithmetic operations, math symbolism, geometry and measurement, functions, discrete math algorithms, probability and statistics, and deductive proofs; and (b) Specialized mathematics instruction for students who do not meet entry into a developmental mathematics course” (Arendale et al., 2007, p. 27).
2. Compare with DEVELOPMENTAL-LEVEL MATHEMATICS COURSE and COLLEGE-LEVEL MATHEMATICS SKILLS.
remedial-level reading course
1. Definition: “Instruction for students who have not yet mastered the skills necessary for college-level reading. These skills may include basic decoding and comprehension skills beyond the 8th-grade level” (Arendale et al., 2007, p. 27).
2. Compare with DEVELOPMENTAL-LEVEL READING COURSE and COLLEGE-LEVEL READING SKILLS.
stacked courses
1. Definition: Two or more courses are taught simultaneously to the same students in the same learning space. Student learning activities and goals are differentiated for each student depending upon their need.
2. Example: DEVELOPMENTAL-LEVEL COURSE and college-level course meet for class at the same time with the same instructor but at their respective level of instruction, or graduate and undergraduate students meet for a class at the same time with the same instructor but at their respective level of instruction.
stretched course
1. Definition: An academically-challenging course during the first-year of college is extended to last two academic terms rather than one. This permits more time for each topic in the course, includes academic support activities, and increases the likelihood of students completing the course with a higher grade. This course design eliminates a two-course sequence of students taking a DEVELOPMENTAL-LEVEL COURSE before enrolling in the COLLEGE-LEVEL course in the same sequence. This is the opposite of many of the newer curricular reform movements that seek to ACCELERATE the pace of instruction.
transitional course
1. Definitions: (a) Students are enrolled in an undergraduate college curriculum designed to increase their academic skills and knowledge to prepare them for a particular college-level introductory course (Example: algebra, chemistry, composition, reading-intensive course) and make a successful transition to the academic rigor that will be required for success at a specific institution and in a program of study. Enrollment in the course is based on a gap in academic preparation for entry-level expectations by an instructor of the college-level course rather than a judgment about the characteristics or demographics of the student (Barnett, Fay, Pheatt, & Trimble, 2016; Paulson & Armstrong, 2010); (b) Depending on the course, in addition to the instructor, it might also include professional staff in advising, counseling, and other services and student paraprofessionals as mentors, small group facilitators, tutors, and more; (c) The course focuses on mathematics, reading, or writing (sometimes an integrated reading/writing course); (d) At some institutions, successful completion of transition courses during high school or the summer before matriculation exempts students from course placement exams or required placement to prepare them for the college-level course; and (e) Describes the wide array of curricular approaches to prepare students for academic success in college-level courses.
2. Compare with ACCELERATION, ACCELERATED COURSE, ACCELERATION THROUGH CURRICULAR REDESIGN, ACCELERATION THROUGH MAINSTREAMING, COMPRESSED COURSE, CO-REQUISITE PAIRED COURSE, DEVELOPMENTAL-LEVEL COURSE, DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION, EMPORIUM-STYLE MODEL, GATEWAY COURSE, GUIDED PATHWAYS, INTEGRATED READING AND WRITING, LEARNING FRAMEWORKS, MODULAR LEARNING, NON-COURSE COMPETENCY-BASED OPTION, NONTRADITIONAL MODEL, STACKED COURSE, and STRETCHED COURSE.
transitional program
1. Definitions: (a) A coordinated curricular and psycho-social development program to support students as they encounter key transition points in their educational path that can especially challenge students who are not privileged (Examples: middle school to high school, high school to college matriculation, orientation prior to first college course, first-year experience in college, community college to four-year institution, and undergraduate to graduate or professional school). Within these six transition zones, institution-specific programs are highly-customized based on demographics, academic program content, academic rigor and institutional priorities for graduating students of a particular profile; (b) Depending on the program configuration, they may include courses taught by instructors; non-course services provided by professional staff in advising, counseling, and other services; and student paraprofessionals as mentors, small group facilitators, tutors, student-athlete services, and more; (c) While most programs are unique to a single institution, some national models have been implemented with adaptations based on demographics, academic rigor, and institutional priorities for graduating students of a particular profile; (d) These program have various purposes (academic skill and knowledge development; cultural capital formation for students who are first-generation college, historically-underrepresented, and economically-disadvantaged; increase number of students who aspire to postsecondary education; increase enrollment and persistence of students in academically-rigorous, high-demand areas such as STEM; and social justice to increase graduation by students who are culturally-diverse in high-demand occupation preparation programs; and (e) These programs are especially important to students who lack the social capital often held by privileged students due to their attendance at high-quality and highly-funded secondary schools; increased proficiency with standardized college entrance examinations due to multiple tests taken and participation in exam preparation programs; and guidance, mentorship, and financial support by one or more generations of family members who have completed a college degree at the undergraduate, graduate, or professional school level (Arendale & Lee, 2018).
2. Examples: American Physical Society Bridge Program; First-year Experience; Senior Capstone Experience; Health Careers Opportunity Program; GEAR UP; and TRIO: Educational Talent Search, Upward Bound, Veterans Upward Bound, Educational Opportunity Center, Student Support Services, and McNair Postbaccalaureate Achievement).
3. Compare with ACADEMIC PREPARATORY ACADEMY, ACCESS EDUCATION, BRIDGE PROGRAM, COMPENSATORY EDUCATION, FIRST-YEAR PROGRAM, and GUIDED PATHWAYS.
TRIO
1. Definition: A series of federally-funded programs to support student success to earn higher grades and graduate from secondary and postsecondary institutions. The programs are targeted for students who are economically-disadvantaged, historically underrepresented in education, and students with disabilities. These programs provide academic enrichment, tutoring, counseling, mentoring, financial training, cultural experiences, and other support services.
2. Examples: Educational Opportunity Centers, Student Support Services Program, Upward Bound, Upward Bound Math/Science Program, Upward Bound Veterans Program, Ronald E. McNair Postbaccalaureate Achievement Program.
3. Compare with BRIDGE PROGRAMS and TRANSITIONAL PROGRAMS.