Impact of Gender with Peer Learning, 1 of 4

S01-E08 We begin a four-part series on publications related to differences of outcomes for students of differing genders participating in peer study groups. Each episode will focus on about 17 of the 80 publications on this topic from my annotated bibliography of eleven national and international models for peer learning models.

What is Peer Group Library?

Keep up-to-date on the latest news and research related to peer learning by listening to short summaries of their publications. David Arendale serves as the host. Each episode is based on a publication or an annotated bibliography. The episodes feature short publication summaries of nine peer group programs like Supplemental Instruction-PASS (UMKC Model), PLTL (CUNY Model), Learning Assistant (CU Boulder Model), and more. You can download the complete podcast script with the web links to download the articles. Go to the podcast episode description. There will be a web link to the document.

Gender Outcomes

Part One

Abraham, N., & Telang, N. K. (2019). Effectiveness of the Supplemental Instruction program in first-year engineering courses - A longitudinal report (2015 - 2018). Paper presented at the 2019 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition, Tampa

This Research Paper examines the effectiveness of the Supplemental Instruction (SI) program implemented at our university in first year engineering courses from its inception in 2015 through 2018. As student retention and four-year graduation rates are of institutional and national interest and frequently referred metrics for college success, the historically successful and well-studied Supplemental Instruction (SI) program was introduced in 2015 through a collaboration between the School of Engineering and the campus Learning Center. The supported courses included, Introduction to Electrical Engineering, and Introduction to Computing. These are required courses for the Electrical and Computer engineering students at the university, and report high percentages of D’s, F’s, Q’s (drops), and W’s (withdraws). In the fall of 2016 this program was expanded to the Network Analyses course in the Biomedical Engineering department at the university. To improve academic success, the Supplemental Instruction (SI) program provides optional, non-remedial sessions designed to deliver content review and additional practice opportunities while developing transferable skills to benefit the student in all coursework at the institution. The SI program is an academic support program created in 1973 at the University of Missouri in Kansas City, to improve grades in traditionally “difficult” classes, promote student retention and increase graduation rates. In the thirty years since its creation, it has become widespread and is considered an effective academic support model (Dawson et al., 2014). The program uses a peer-assisted learning model to review class material and develop transferable study skills. SI leaders, undergraduates who have completed the course successfully, are selected for interest in teaching and learning, offer two sessions per week that incorporates peer and collaborative learning strategies married with course material review. This report provides a longitudinal view of the effects of SI, an examination of aspects of the program that are successful and areas for improvement, as well as provide evidence for expansion to other courses. The study utilizes a mixed-methods approach, incorporating quantitative data relating to grades and attendance with qualitative data relating to student perceptions about SI. Over the course of three years, the collaborators have collected multiple types of data, including students’ SI session attendance and academic performance in the current course, as well as subsequent courses and semesters, students’ demographic data, and the D’s, F’s, W’s and Q drop rates (QDFW rates) for attendees and non-attendees. Qualitative data was collected in the form of surveys administered to attendees from 2015-2018. An analysis conducted for every semester starting in 2015 showed a minimum of 15 percent decrease in QDFW rates for SI attendees (students who attended 2 or more sessions) vs. non-SI attendees (students who attended 0 or 1 session). In spring semesters, the difference was even more pronounced, with SI attendees’ QDFW rates at minimum being less than half of that for non-SI attendees (see the Table 1 below). In 2017, the collaborators were able to compare students with similar SAT scores and found a more pronounced positive effect on end of semester course GPA for those students who had low SAT scores and attended SI regularly compared to those who did not attend. As the SI program’s effectiveness is assessed by aiming to reduce the QDFW rates in first year engineering courses and in turn retain more students to the ECE program, especially those students who are most at risk (first generation, women, non-dominant, etc.), we plan to provide an in-depth analysis of how the SI program affects these specific demographics, as well as compare students outcomes in the three year period using SAT scores for a more accurate reflection of the effects of SI. Table 1: % DFQW for Introduction to Electrical Engineering Non SI SI Fall 2015 11.6% 9.3% Spring 2016 44% 16% Fall 2016 17.2% 4.7% Spring 2017 25.7% 0% Fall 2017 12.7% 9.35% Spring 2018 27.9% 9.5%

Alfonso, n. J. (2022). Experiences of STEM community college women in Supplemental Instruction courses persisting to graduation. (Ph.D. dissertation), Grand Canyon University.

The significant under-representation of women in the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) careers fields directly links to the under-enrollment and retention in STEM educational degree programs. Using the leaky pipeline framework and theory of student persistence, the purpose of this qualitative descriptive study was to understand how females who completed supplemental education courses describe their decision processes to choose a STEM major and persist to graduation at a two- year college in southern Colorado. The sample included female STEM majors who were enrolled in Supplemental Instruction education courses and are currently persisting to graduation at a community college. The College Persistence Questionnaire (51) and semi structured interviews (10) were thematically analyzed and yielded 20 primary themes. The findings from this study highlights the positive role SI has on female STEM major’s persistence to graduation. The findings also strengthen the theory on student persistence in that academic and social integration practices are integral not only on persistence within non-stem majors, but also STEM degree pathways as well. It is recommended that STEM educators and college leaders in southern Colorado focus on, mentoring and instructional practices such as increased SI to help increase female STEM persistence. It is recommended that future research focus on the pipeline at the secondary level. Research addressing all aspects of the pipeline, may provide clearer rationale which in turn can lead to better practices promoting female STEM major persistence.

Allen, P. J., de Freitas, S., Marriott, R. J., Pereira, R. M., Williams, C., Cunningham, C. J., & Fletcher, D. (2021). Evaluating the effectiveness of Supplemental Instruction using a multivariable analytic approach. Learning and Instruction, 75(October)

Supplemental instruction (SI) is a widely implemented peer-led academic support program. Assessments of SI's effectiveness are often confounded by student ability, achievement, motivation and demographic characteristics, and frequently limited by available resources. We modelled the impact of SI attendance on the grades, pass rates and retention of over 4000 university students. Percentage grade increases of up to 10.4% were associated with a full semester of SI attendance, and largest for males, younger students and those who had not previously engaged with the program. Furthermore, pass rates were 10% higher for full attendees. Finally, full attendance was associated with a 3% and 9% increase in the probability of reenrolling the following year for students who had and had not previously engaged, respectively. These estimates were calculated controlling for measures of ability, achievement and motivation, plus several demographic factors. Our methods can be applied to evaluate any opt-in academic support program.

Angrist, J., Lang, D., & Oreopoulos, P. (2006). Lead them to water and pay them to drink: An experiment with services and incentives for college achievement. National Bureau of Economic Research website

This project was sponsored by the Canada Millennium Scholarship Foundation. This paper reports on a randomized field experiment involving two strategies designed to improve college academic outcomes among first-year undergraduates at a large Canadian university. One treatment group was offered peer advising and tutorial services. The students participated in a version of Supplemental Instruction (SI). Another was offered substantial merit-scholarships for solid, but not necessarily top, first year grades. A third treatment group combined both interventions. The financial incentive encouraged more students to participate in SI. While male students did not see much improvement of grades, females did. Females who participated in the SI program and received the financial incentive for the scholarships persisted longer at the institution. The researchers suggest that a combination of the academic intervention and the scholarship program was the most effective way to increase academic performance and student persistence towards graduation.

Barker, L. J., & Cohoon, J. M. (2007). Peer-led Team Learning: Retaining women through collaborative learning. Boulder, CO: National Center for Women & Information Technology.

This short article describes how the Peer-led Team Learning (PLTL) program supports the persistence of women in the science curriculum. Female students involved in the Computing Alliance for Hispanic-Serving Institutions found that the learning environment that was enriched through PLTL was more supportive for both learning and persistence. The authors state that the collaborative learning activities must be carefully planned and facilitated to maximize the learning benefit for participating students.

Bjorkquist, R. (2019). Women in physics in the United States: Reaching toward equity and inclusion. Conference Proceedings of the 2019 AIP Conference.

The United States has a major deficit in the proportion of women earning degrees in physics, peaking around 20%. To promote excellence and maximize creativity, additional efforts to diversify the physics community must be implemented. Challenges to improving the proportion of female physicists include microaggressions, active discouragement, poor advising or mentoring, inadequate acknowledgement of achievements, sexual harassment, and many others. The latest research on gender bias suggests two main underlying psychological themes that explain much of the behavioral bias: implicit (unconscious) bias and stereotype threat. To ensure that excellence is not compromised, we need to guarantee that our entire population has access to adequate resources and the necessary support structures for success. To fully understand women in physics, we must also examine the many obstacles that women of various identities face in efforts to navigate their academic and professional careers. These identities may be related not only to gender but also to race, ethnicity, language, religion, social class, or sexuality. Increasing women’s participation in physics requires increased access to high school physics courses, funding opportunities to attend college, availability of research opportunities, and access to and support from professional societies. These approaches will enhance the culture in physics, leading to gender equity, social equity, and improved social justice for many people.

Blat, C., Myers, S., Nunnally, K., & Tolley, P. (2001). Successfully applying the Supplemental Instruction model to sophomore-level engineering courses. Conference Proceedings of the Proceedings of the 2001 American Society for Engineering Education Annual Conference & Exposition.

Supplemental Instruction (SI) has been used at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte for 15 years with mixed success in various academic content areas. In the past four years SI has been used in the College of Engineering in Statics (MEGR 2141), Mechanic of Solids (MEGR 2144), Network Theory II (ECGR 2112), and Applied Calculus for Engineering Technology students (EGET 3171). Research suggests that SI contributes to higher final course grades and lower rates of D, F, or course withdrawals. SI participants who attend five or more sessions during the academic term are more likely to persist for an additional academic term than students who do not. There were no significant differences regarding SI participation by gender, ethnicity, average Math SAT, average Verbal SAT, or average predicted GPA. The chapter concludes with recommendations for implementation of SI at a campus.

Bonsangue, M. V. (1990). Long-term effects of the Calculus Workshop model. Unpublished manuscript. California State University, Fullerton. Fullerton

This report describes the Calculus Workshop Model, also known as the Emerging Scholars Program (ESP), and displays several research studies conducted concerning a set of research questions. The three questions were: are there effects on academic performance past the first year of college when ESP was available? Does the ESP program merely "skim" the best students or does program participation affect achievement in the course? Are the types of academic and social issues addressed by the ESP program relevant only for underrepresented minority students, or for non-majority students as well? After providing a program description and theoretical underpinning to the model, the paper presents several research studies focused on the previously described research questions. The students in the study were minority and non-minority students enrolled in a first-year calculus course and also were a mathematics-based major at the College of Engineering or the College of Science at California Polytechnic State University, Pomona (also known as Cal Poly). In comparison between ESP and non-ESP participating students, the ESP students earned higher mean grades in first-quarter Calculus, higher rate of persistence in a math/science/engineering major in college, higher mean grade in first two years of Calculus, and lower course attempt ratio in first-year Calculus (lower withdrawal and subsequent reenrollment). The data suggested that self-selection into the program was not a major variable in explaining the positive differences for the ESP participations. In addition, the data suggested the effectiveness of the ESP model for improving academic achievement of female students who are underrepresented in the area of math/science/engineering.

Bonsangue, M. V. (1994). An efficacy study of the calculus workshop model. In E. Dubinsky, A. H. Schoenfeld & J. Kaput (Eds.), Research in collegiate mathematics education I (pp. 117-137). Providence, RI: American Mathematical Society

This chapter provides an in depth investigation of the Emerging Scholars Program (ESP). Three questions were studied: are there effects on academic performance of students beyond the first year when they are ESP participants; does the ESP program only enroll the best students who would have done well academically; and are the academic and social issues dealt with by the ESP approach important not only for the target population of underrepresented students in the sciences, but actually good pedagogy for all students. In addition to the study, a comprehensive literature review, ESP description, and theoretical basis for ESP is provided. While the self-selection bias issue was an intervening variable that had an impact on program effectiveness, it appears that ESP contributed to higher achievement for the participating students. The results were less clear for the impact on future academic terms. A cost-benefit analysis suggested that ESP reduced dropouts and reenrollment in courses due to poor marks. Both results contributed to lower costs to the institution and made the program cost neutral if not a cost saver.

Bonsangue, M. V., & Drew, D. E. (1995). Increasing minority students' success in calculus. In J. Gainen & E. W. Willemsen (Eds.), Increasing student success in quantitative gateway courses, (pp. 23-33). New Direction for Teaching and Learning, No. 61. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass

The Emerging Scholars Program (ESP), called the Academic Excellence Workshop at California State Polytechnic University-Ponoma, has supported higher academic outcomes in academic achievement and persistence for nontraditional students in science, math, and engineering majors. The study focused on students enrolled in college calculus which serves as a gatekeeper course for these majors. Higher outcomes were reported for women and Latinos who participated in the program. Procedures for conducting the ESP are also shared. An analysis of the cost effectiveness of the program is documented.

Chan, J. K., & Bauer, C. F. (2015). Effect of Peer-Led Team Learning (PLTL) on student achievement, attitude, and self-concept in college general chemistry in randomized and quasi experimental designs. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 52(3), 319-346.

This study investigated exam achievement and affective characteristics of students in general chemistry in a fully-randomized experimental design, contrasting Peer-Led Team Learning (PLTL) participation with a control group balanced for time-on-task and study activity. This study population included two independent first-semester courses with enrollments of about 600. Achievement was measured by scores on exams written by an instructor blind to student participation. Established instruments were used to assess changes in attitude to chemistry and self-concept as a chemistry learner. No differences were found in achievement, attitude, or self-concept for students who participated in PLTL vs. those who participated in documented alternative study activities. Overall, certain aspects of attitude and self-concept showed a slight but significant decline from beginning to end of semester, consistent with previous studies. Males have higher positive attitude and self-concept than females, and first-year students have higher positive attitude, self-concept, and achievement than non first-year students. In a quasi-experimental comparison of 10 other course sections over seven years, students who self-selected into PLTL showed stronger exam achievement than those who did not choose to participate. These findings suggest that past reports of improved student performance with PLTL may in part be a consequence of attracting students who are already motivated to take advantage of its value.

Clubine, B. J. (1993). An evaluation of the Emerging Scholars Program at the University of Texas at Austin: A non-remedial approach to the advancement of minority students and women in mathematics. (Master of Arts thesis), University of Texas at Austin

This MA thesis evaluates the Emerging Scholars Program (ESP) at the University of Texas at Austin. ESP was evaluated in the School of Natural Sciences concerning student involvement in the 1990-91 academic year. The program was found helpful in increasing academic success of historically underrepresented students of color and females in mathematics. Five questions were examined: how do students perceive and respond to the experience of ESP; how does the ESP fit into students' overall experience at the large university; what kinds of secondary school experiences are most instrumental in introducing minority and other students to mathematics and the natural sciences; what kinds of academic and other experiences confirm them in their choice of science and/or mathematics as an area of endeavor; and what kinds of academic and other experiences lead to their successful commitment to research in mathematics and the natural sciences as life-long careers.

Cobb, S. L., McPherson, M. A., Molina, D. J., Quintanilla, J., Rasmussen, E., & Rous, J. J. (2018). Teaching economics to the masses: The effects of student help centers on academic outcomes International Review of Economics Education, 27, 16-23

Many institutions of higher education have some form of voluntary peer tutoring. There have been a number of efforts to examine the effects of such programs on student outcomes. Many of these fail to acknowledge the possibility of self-selection bias. Should such endogeneity exist, estimates regarding the extent to which help centers improve student performance will be biased. We examine the determinants of student participation in peer tutoring among students taking Principles of Economics, and we test for self-selection bias. Finally, we examine the factors that affect student performance in these classes over two semesters – approximately 1400 students. We find that students who live a greater distance from campus are less likely to participate; student ethnicity and gender also affect this choice. We also find that the number of visits to our help center is exogenous. Finally, we find that supplemental instruction significantly improves student performance.

Drane, D., Micari, M., & Light, G. (2014). Students as teachers: Effectiveness of a Peer-Led STEM Learning Program over 10 years. Educational Research and Evaluation, 20(3), 210-230.

Peer-led small group learning has been used quite extensively in the US as a strategy to enhance performance and retention of undergraduate students in science, math and engineering classes. This study presents the results from an evaluation of a peer-led small group program at a selective research university in the US over a 10 year period across five disciplines (biology, chemistry, engineering, physics and math) and seven courses. Data suggest that the program had a positive impact on participants‘ grades in 5 of the 7 courses and on participant retention in the 4 courses that require students to take a consecutive course sequence. Effects of the program were investigated across gender and ethnic groups. Participants benefited from the program regardless of their gender or ethnicity. However, effect sizes were often larger for students from under-represented groups. This was particularly true in the case of course retention where effect sizes for females were larger than those for males in biology, organic chemistry and engineering courses.

Emenike, M. E., Cuthbert, T., & Blackwell, S. (2022). Investigating the epistemological development of academic peer leaders across STEM disciplines: Exploring changes over time, by gender, and by discipline. The Learning Assistance Review, 27(2), 83-130.

Academic peer leadership positions provide opportunities for undergraduate students to develop content knowledge, Twentyfirst Century Skills, and their beliefs about teaching and learning. To explore peer leaders' (PLs') epistemological development, the Epistemological Beliefs about Physical Sciences (EBAPS) survey was administered to 135 PLs three times a year, over a three-year period. This instrument was demonstrated to be valid and reliable for use with STEM PLs. Although the majority of positive shifts within instrument constructors occurred during the fall semester, responses did not regress by the end of the spring semester, demonstrating a retention of the new or altered beliefs over time. Implications for the design of PL development programs are discussed.

Englert, A. (2016). Addressing student performance in the classroom: A case study of the University of Alaska Fairbanks Supplemental Instruction program. (Ph.D. dissertation), University of Alaska Fairbanks.

The Supplemental Instruction (SI) program, developed and headquartered at the University of Missouri Kansas City, is a peer-to-peer mentorship program that seeks to aid post-secondary education students in passing historically difficult courses. The University of Alaska Fairbanks Supplemental Instruction program was established in 2003, and to date no external study has been completed as to its effectiveness despite the university’s unique student population. To empirically evaluate the program’s main user groups and impact on final course grade, three models were created: a probit model identified the demographic factors that led to a student self-selecting to participate; a negative binomial regression model was used to predict the number of SI sessions students attended; and an ordered probit model quantified the effect of SI attendance on final course grades. The results suggest that the program had a positive impact on final grades, with SI attendees being approximately 92% more likely to receive an A, and 94% less likely to receive a D or an F, than non-attendees. Older and married students were consistently found to be more likely to participate, as were students with large high school grade point averages. However, minority males were found to be almost 9% less likely to participate in SI than their white male counterparts.

Eroy-Reveles, A. A., Hsu, E., Rath, K. A., Peterfreund , A. R., & Bayliss, F. (2019). History and Evolution of STEM Supplemental Instruction at San Francisco State University: A Large, Urban, Minority-serving Institution. In Z. S. Wilson-Kennedy, G. S. Byrd, E. Kennedy & H. T. Frierson (Eds.), Diversity in Higher Education (Vol. 22): Emerald Publishing

Supplemental Instructions (SIs) were introduced into the San Francisco State University College of Science & Engineering curriculum in 1999. The goal was to improve student performance and retention and to decrease the time to degree in STEM majors. While for the most part we followed the structure and activities as developed by the International Center for Supplemental Instruction at the University of Missouri, Kansas City, we discovered several variations that significantly improved our outcomes. First and foremost, we created SI courses that require attendance, which results in higher students’ performance outcomes compared to drop-in options. Second, at SFSU the SI courses are led by pairs of undergraduate student facilitators (who are all STEM majors) trained in active learning strategies. Each year, more than half of our facilitators return to teach for another year. Thus, each section has a returning “experienced” facilitator who works with a new “novice” facilitator. Third, the SI courses were created with a distinct course prefix and listed as courses that generate revenue and make data access available for comparison studies. Results are presented that compare SI impact by gender and with groups underrepresented in STEM disciplines.

Part Two

Fayowski, V., & MacMillan, P. D. (2008). An evaluation of the Supplemental Instruction programme in a first year calculus course. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 39(7), 843-855.

The Supplemental Instruction (SI) approach was used in a first year calculus for non-majors course at the University of Northern British Columbia in Canada. An ANCOVA indicated that ability/motivation, as measured by prior grade point average, was a useful predictor of course letter grade; and SI participation was statistically significant. The odds of success were 2.7 times greater for SI participants than nonparticipants.

Fernandez, O. E. (2018). How constructivism can boost success in STEM fields for women and students of color Constructivist education in an age of accountability (pp. 113-126): Springer

National Science Foundation statistics document a stark gap in degree attainment in most STEM fields for women and students of color. This chapter summarizes research on learning, academic achievement, and persistence to help understand the origin of this gap. Discussion focuses on the central role that constructivist teaching and learning environments play in boosting success for women and students of color in STEM. Practical tweaks and tips are presented to encourage educators to incorporate this pedagogy to improve learning and achievement for all students.

Fink, A., Frey, R. F., & Solomon, E. D. (2020). Belonging in general chemistry predicts first-year undergraduates’ performance and attrition. Chemistry Education Research and Practice.

Feeling a sense of belonging in a learning environment can have positive effects on student success. The impact of this psychosocial variable on undergraduates’ achievement and retention has been demonstrated in STEM disciplines, especially for women within physical sciences where large disparities in gender representation persist. The current study explores the relationship between belonging and student success in undergraduate chemistry, where greater gender parity has recently emerged. In particular, this research investigates the belonging of first-year students enrolled in a two-semester General Chemistry course sequence. The study begins by examining whether students’ early sense of belonging in the course, indexed by two survey measures (perceived belonging, belonging uncertainty) varies depending on their demographics and academic preparation. The belonging measures are then used as predictors of performance in General Chemistry 1 and 2 and attrition from one semester to the next. Paralleling research in other STEM disciplines, the results show that female students, especially those from underrepresented minority groups, reported lower belonging and higher uncertainty than male students within the first weeks of the course. After accounting for demographics, preparation, and participation in a course supplemental program, the belonging measures predicted performance and attrition for all students. These findings suggest that course-level belonging in General Chemistry can have practical consequences for student success, and early disparities in belonging may have downstream effects on the retention of women and other groups underrepresented in STEM. Strategies for creating an inclusive and engaging environment that supports the success of all students are discussed.

Fogarty, J., Altman, R., & Lundmark, J. (2022). Impact of peer-assisted learning and leadership development on undergraduate studentss. Conference Proceedings of the Excellence through Diversity ASEE Annual Conference, Minneapolis

With college advisory boards and potential employers consistently voicing their desire for engineers and scientists who can communicate well, work effectively in teams, and independently problem-solve, the Colleges of Engineering & Computer Science (ECS) and Natural Sciences and Mathematics (NSM) at Sacramento State University, a large, public, primarily undergraduate institution, have deployed two programs to explicitly address these skills for undergraduate science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) students. The goals of the NSF-funded Achieving STEM Persistence through Peer-Assisted Learning and Leadership Development (ASPIRE) project are to increase retention and decrease time to graduation for STEM students, as well as increase retention of women and underrepresented minorities (URM) in the STEM workforce by implementing evidence-based practices to promote student success during two critical transitions: 1) from lower-division to upper-division coursework in engineering; and 2) from upper-division coursework to an entry-level STEM career. ASPIRE aims to achieve these goals by: 1) adapting and implementing the NSM Peer Assisted Learning (PAL) program in gateway engineering courses; and 2) developing the Hornet Leadership Program which includes scaffolded opportunities for students to explore their leadership capacity and develop leadership skills. The main research questions for this study include: (1) Will the ECS PAL model and Hornet Leadership Program result in increased persistence and workforce readiness in STEM majors at a large, diverse university? (2) What attitude changes will this project have on students and faculty and the relationships between them? The first question is addressed through pre- and post-implementation student surveys and student course/GPA data. The second question is addressed through faculty surveys, faculty focus groups/interviews, and pre- and post-data from a faculty professional development workshop. In general, preliminary results from this study indicate the new ECS PAL program successfully attracts URM students and thus has the potential to support their persistence and STEM workforce readiness. Additionally, undergraduate students across both Colleges who participated in the inaugural Hornet Leadership Program gained non-technical skills and experiences directly linked to competitiveness and preparation for workforce entry and graduate programs. Finally, faculty surveys and the faculty professional development workshop indicate that faculty value student leadership development, but identify barriers to accomplishing this work.

Geerlings, P. M., Cole, H., Batt, S., & Martin-Lynch, P. (2016). Peer Assisted Study Sessions (PASS): Does gender matter? Journal of Peer Learning, 9(1), article 3

Peer-learning is an effective way to assist students to acquire study skills and content knowledge, especially in university courses that students find difficult, and it is an effective adjunct to improve student retention. In 2014, Murdoch University in Perth, Western Australia, commenced Peer Assisted Study Sessions (PASS) in two first-year undergraduate subjects: a mathematics (statistics) unit and a business unit. The key finding in this evaluation was that while female mathematics students improved their final marks in response to attending a greater number of sessions per semester, male students achieved lower final marks on average. Although several studies have shown that in PASS-like programs gender tends to not be a significant factor relating to achievement, our results suggest otherwise. In this article we posit the observed differences in achievement attributed to gender arise from complex gender-related issues, including gender stereotypes, student gender ratios in class, the gender of the teacher relative to the gender of the student, and gender-related motivation, engagement, and subject choice.

Goertzen, r. M., Brewe, E., Kramer, L. H., Wells, L., & Jones, D. (2011). Moving toward change: Institutionalizing reform through implementation of the Learning Assistant model and Open Source Tutorials. Physical Review Physics Education Research, 7(2), 1-9.

Florida International University has undergone a reform in the introductory physics classes by focusing on the laboratory component of these classes. We present results from the secondary implementation of two research-based instructional strategies: the implementation of the Learning Assistant model as developed by the University of Colorado at Boulder and the Open Source Tutorial curriculum developed at the University of Maryland, College Park. We examine the results of the Force Concept Inventory (FCI) for introductory students over five years (n=872) and find that the mean raw gain of students in transformed lab sections was 0.243, while the mean raw gain of the traditional labs was 0.159, with a Cohen’s d effect size of 0.59. Average raw gains on the FCI were 0.243 for Hispanic students and 0.213 for women in the transformed labs, indicating that these reforms are not widening the gaps between underrepresented student groups and majority groups. Our results illustrate how research-based instructional strategies can be successfully implemented in a physics department with minimal department engagement and in a sustainable manner.

Hoiland, S. L., Reyes, S., & Varelas, A. (2020). The impact of a Supplemental Instruction program on diverse peer leaders at a two-year institution. Journal of Peer Learning, 13(1), 5-20.

Supplemental Instruction (SI) is a peer-led academic support program in which SI Leaders help students develop study habits and note-taking strategies as well as facilitate test preparation. While the effects of SI on students receiving the instruction have been thoroughly investigated, there have been far fewer studies that have assessed the impact of SI on its Leaders. Furthermore, research on Leaders has yet to adequately consider community colleges or Hispanic-Serving Institutions (HSIs), or to employ qualitative methodologies. Thus, this paper details an SI program developed at a two-year HSI and the impact of the SI Leaders’ experience via qualitative data analysis of structured, open-ended interviews. The majority of Leaders described shifts in long-term goals or changes in learning styles from individual learning and a desire to “look smart” to one that embraced asking for help, peer learning, and belonging. The data indicate a shift in academic mindset among Leaders, particularly among minority male and female adult learners and Latino males.

Horwitz, S., & Rodger, S. H. (2009). Using Peer-Led Team Learning to increase participation and success of under-represented groups in introductory computer science. Conference Proceedings of the SIGCSE;09, Chattanooga

This paper describes the implementation and evaluation of a program that uses active recruiting and peer-led team learning to try to increase the participation and success of women and minority students in undergraduate computer science. These strategies were applied at eight universities starting in the fall of 2004. There have been some impressive results: We succeeded in attracting under-represented students who would not otherwise have taken a CS course. Evaluation shows that participation in our program significantly improves retention rates and grades, especially for women. Students in the program, as well as the students who served as peer leaders, are uniformly enthusiastic about their experience

Ishmael, A. (2017). The impact of Supplemental Instruction on student achievement and retention at a minority-serving, private, not-for-profile university in southeastern Florida. (Ph.D. dissertation), Nova Southestern University.

Student academic success and retention are primary concerns for colleges and universities. This researcher used a mixed method study to explore the impact of Supplemental Instruction (SI) on student success and persistence in two introductory, college-level algebra courses, Math 1030 Intermediate Algebra, and, Math 1040 Algebra for College Students, at a minority-serving, private not-for-profit university in Southeastern Florida. In response to greater accountability to increase students’ achievement and retention, SI, in conjunction with other academic support programs, was developed to assist students to progress successfully through high-risk courses, for example, mathematics. Developed by Deanna Martin at the University of Missouri-Kansas City, SI is an academic support tool that incorporates collaborative learning study sessions to improve student academic success and persistence. This study allowed the researcher to understand if students are more successful academically because of participating in SI sessions. More specifically, the researcher’s goals were to find out if student achievement and long-term retention is gained when students participate in SI, and, if additional benefits outside of course grades and retention are achieved because of SI participation. Using a convenience sample, the researcher sought to answer five research questions: (a) To what extent are students who participated in SI Mathematics more successful than students who did not participate in SI Mathematics, as measured by final course grades? (b) What is the persistence of students who participated in two or more SI sessions as measured by fall-to-fall semester retention? (c) Does the level of persistence differ by gender? (d) What additional benefits occur with SI student participation outside of course grades and retention as measured by focus groups? (e) To what extent does the quantitative and qualitative data converge? This study required the use of archival data of students who participated in SI Math 1030 Intermediate Algebra and SI Math 1040 Algebra for College Students in the 2015-2016 academic year. In addition, the researcher conducted a focus group and two one-on-one interviews to investigate if additional benefits were gained when students participate in SI Math. Analysis of the quantitative data revealed that student academic success is achieved, based on final course grades, and fall-to-fall retention is statistically significant when students participate in two or more SI sessions. However, a Mann-Whitney U test showed that persistence level did not differ by gender. Results from the qualitative data indicated that additional benefits such as increased student engagement and integration, enhanced learning, and communication is gained by attending SI.

Jacquez, R., Gude, V. G., Hanson, A., Auzenne, M., & Williamson, S. (2007). Enhancing critical thinking skills of civil engineering students through Supplemental Instruction. Conference Proceedings of the ASEE.

This conference proceeding describes the use of Supplemental Instruction (SI) at New Mexico State University with civil engineering students. SI has been offered for these students since 2003. In addition to focusing on enhancement of final course grades, the SI program requires the students to exercise critical thinking skills as it involves design oriented open-ended problem solving. SI participants outperformed the nonparticipants through both their work examples as well as exam scores. There was a dramatic reduction of grades of C-D with a corresponding increase of final grades of A or B for the SI participants. Surveys of students indicated high satisfaction with the SI program. Special attention was paid during the evaluation process for the potential impact of SI with Hispanic and female students. This was important since the institution serves a high percentage of Hispanic students due to its location in New Mexico. Attention was paid for female students since they are historically underrepresented in the engineering degree programs. On both accounts, the Hispanic and female students participated at similar rates in the SI program in comparison with students from other demographic backgrounds.

Johnson, D. R. (2020). Supplemental Instruction in first-year chemistry courses: Efficacy and gender balance. (Ed.D. dissertation), East Tennessee State University.

Increasing student success and retention rates are top goals for many higher education institutions. Supplemental Instruction (SI) is a widely used academic support program designed to increase students’ academic performance and provide students the learning skills they need to persist to graduation. Unfortunately, a lack of time, personnel, and resources often prevent in-depth, meaningful analysis on the effectiveness of SI programs. This study examined the relationship of attending SI sessions for first-year chemistry courses to student grade outcomes and retention rates for attendees. The gender of SI leaders and SI participants was also assessed to determine if leader and participant gender were related to SI attendance, final course grades, or retention. The results indicated that students who attended SI earned significantly higher final course grades and were retained at significantly higher rates after one and two terms. A positive correlation was discovered between the number of SI sessions attended and final course grades. Significant differences in final grades were demonstrated between students who attended SI and those who did not at all levels of composite ACT scores. Both male and female students showed a preference for gender-matching with their SI leader, but students who attended SI sessions with both male and female SI leaders earned higher final course grades than students who gender-matched with their SI leader and students who only attended SI sessions with an SI leader whose gender differed from their own. No significant differences were found between male and female students for final course grades or retention outcomes.

Kosciuk, S. (1997). Impact of the Wisconsin Emerging Scholars first-semester calculus program on grades and retention from Fall 1993-1996. Unpublished manuscript. University of Wisconsin-Madison. Madison

The Emerging Scholars Program (ESP) at the University of Wisconsin-Madison was evaluated between 1993 and 1996. The ESP was designed to increase the academic success of students enrolled in several first-semester calculus and persist at higher rates in science, math, engineering, or technology academic majors. The success rate was increased for participating students.

Lindsay, K., Carlsen-Landy, B., Boaz, C., & Marshall, D. (2017). Predictors of student success in Supplemental Instruction courses at a medium sized women’s university. International Journal of Research in Education and Science, 3(1), 208-217.

Supplemental Instruction (SI) is a program that seeks to improve student success by targeting classes with high failure rates, as defined with a failure percentage of 30% or more. It is organized by an administrative SI supervisor who supervises SI leaders, which are students that have successfully completed the courses that they have been assigned. The SI supervisor also collaborates with the course instructors who aid in screening the competency of the SI leaders. Improved self-confidence, teamwork, independence and course performance have been reported as benefits of SI. This project sought to explore the effect of SI on success and failure, along with gender, age and race. The type of course was also used as a factor in order to control for it as a confounding variable. In order to ascertain the effect of these variables on success, a technique called logistic regression was used. Caucasian female students who took bacteriology and did not attend SI were used as the reference group. Students were about twice as likely to succeed if they completed the required number of SI sessions and one fifth as likely to succeed if they were in a SI class and did not meet the minimum number of sessions. Hispanic students were 40% as likely to succeed, and African American students were about one third as likely to succeed when compared to Caucasian students. Students between 20 and 29 years old were half as likely to succeed, and those 30 or older were one quarter as likely to succeed when compared to teen students. Those in algebra were about three times more likely to succeed than those in bacteriology, chemistry and statistics. When the students that withdrew were removed, the chances of success were about the same, except for African American students which were one quarter as likely to succeed, and those that did not meet minimum sessions were one quarter as likely to succeed. The model explained more variation when the students that withdrew were included. As SI had a strong influence on success, it should be considered as a tool to enable retention of students in high risk courses.

Lio-Mark, J., Dreyfuss, A. E., Blake, R., Lansiquot, R. D., & Yu, K. (2013). Navigation by mentoring and leadership: Sustaining women majoring in mathematics. Journal of Mathematics and Computer Education, 47(2), 134-142.

The retention and persistence rates of females majoring in mathematics consistently lag behind those of their male counterparts. Indeed, the disparity in rates of females graduating in mathematics at the baccalaureate level continues to be a national challenge [1]. The Navigation by Mentoring and Leadership (NML) program at New York City College of Technology (a large, urban, minority-serving institution) was designed to address these issues. The goal of eradicating gender disparities in mathematics was supported by improving the institutional climate for women majoring in Applied Mathematics and Mathematics Education. Toward this goal, the NML program brought students together in a vibrant learning community that offered an array of activities that were designed to support them through their undergraduate years. These activities included: 1) a multi-tiered mentoring program, 2) leadership development, 3) luncheons with women mathematics faculty, 4) career preparation workshops, 5) conference participation and presentations, and 6) mathematics exposure trips. Preliminary findings from this pilot study suggest that the amalgam of these activities may increase the persistence and retention rates of women majoring in Applied Mathematics. The disparity of females graduating in mathematics has been well documented by the National Science Foundation [1]. From 1986 to 2006, the percentage of women graduating with a baccalaureate degree in mathematics and computer science has decreased by 12%, while the percentage of women graduating in the fields of biological and agricultural sciences, earth, atmospheric and ocean sciences, engineering, and physical sciences has increased (Table 1).

Liou-Mark, J., Lansiquot, R. D., Yu, K., Dreyfuss, A. E., Blake, R., Zeng, S., & Jevtic, M. (2012). Supporting a community of women in STEM through the navigation by mentoring and peer leadership program. Conference Proceedings of the Peer-led Team Learning International Society Inaugural Conference, Brooklyn

The retention and persistence rates of females majoring in mathematics have been consistently lower than their male peers. The disparity in the rates of minority females graduating in mathematics at the baccalaureate level continues to be a national challenge. Through the support of the Tensor Foundation and Mathematical Association of America Women and Mathematics grant, the Navigation by Mentoring and Leadership (NML) program at the New York City College of Technology of the City University of New York was designed to address these major issues. This program is based on the Peer-Led Team Learning (PLTL) program developed initially at the City University of New York. The goal of eradicating gender disparities in Mathematics and other Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) areas can be assisted by creating a matrix of academic and social support structures for women. These structures include a multi-tiered mentoring program in which role-modeling and leadership skills are enhanced through the Peer-Led Team Learning instructional model.

Liou-Mark, J., Villatore, M. L., Masuda, A., Ikramova, M., Shati, F., Rivera, J., & Lee, V. (2021). Peer-Led Team Learning in mathematics: An effort to address diversity and inclusion through learning and leadership. In M. Voight, J. E. Hagman, J. Gehitz, B. Ratliff, N. Alexander & R. Levy (Eds.), Justice through the lens of calculus: Framing new possibilities for diversity, equity, and inclusion: Mathematical Association of America

The Peer-Led Team Learning (PLTL) model has shown to be an effective instructional method to support females, underrepresented minorities, and first-generation students in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM). The collaborative problem-solving setting, led by a peer leader, fosters learning that engages all the students. There are six critical components that are vital to the PLTL model: 1) The PLTL Workshop is integral to the course; 2) Faculty is actively involved; 3) Peer Leaders are well trained; 4) The PLTL Workshop modules are challenging; 5) PLTL workshops are allocated time and space; and 6) There is institutional support. City Tech has implemented the PLTL workshops in selected foundation mathematics courses over the past five years because of the dismal pass and withdrawal rates. Overall results have shown that females, underrepresented minorities, and first-generation college students who actively participated in the PLTL workshops have higher course grades and lower withdrawal rates. Students are also afforded the opportunity to participate in the PLTL Leadership program. Through the PLTL Leadership program, females, underrepresented minorities, and first-generation college students (107 peer leaders in total) who have successfully completing their STEM degrees, are either in the STEM workforce or pursuing advanced STEM degrees. The PLTL model supports students who are academically disadvantaged, and provides students with an opportunity to build their leadership skills and to create a pathway to graduate school.

Lu, C. (2012). How can the peer leader support students' learning in workshop? Conference Proceedings of the Peer-led Team Learning International Society Inaugural Conference, Brooklyn

Peer-led workshops usually consist of 6-8 students who come together to discuss and solve problems on modules given to them each week. Workshop students often lack confidence in their ability to solve problems in mathematics. Comparison is a big factor in lack of confidence, especially in group-based work. Students usually compare themselves with others based on how fast they could learn new material or complete assignments. Students also compare their own abilities to contribute to teamwork to their teammates, resulting in hesitating to ask for help. Grades and the amount of material students master is also a big factor to compare. Gender roles are another factor in lack of confidence. Men usually conclude they are superior to their peers and women usually conclude they are inferior. When facing challenges, women tend to dwell on their failures and men only rarely. In situations where students find themselves inferior to others, they lose confidence. Faculty play a big part in increasing confidence in students; they could also explain to students that how long it takes to solve a problem is less important than understanding and solving it.

Part Three

Luthi, K. A., Kar, M., & Macon, L. (2022). The impact of PLTL in four introductory engineering courses: Improving access and opportunity for students underrepresented in STEM disciplines. Advances in Peer-Led Learning, 2(1), 55-71

The performance assessment was a major component of the overall National Science Foundation-funded research project, Engagement in Engineering Pathways. The study examined underrepresented and female students’ abilities to translate cognitive knowledge into demonstrable performance-based proficiencies through engagement in Peer-Led Team Learning (PLTL) labs in post-secondary, undergraduate introductory engineering courses. Evidence from the study comes from 518 students enrolled in four engineering courses and PLTL labs. The research protocols, implementation process, and assessment of academic achievement of project participants are discussed. Data are analyzed across student demographics to identify performance indicators within PLTL activities that influenced students’ commitment and retention in engineering pathways. This study found evidence to suggest the incorporation of PLTL in introductory engineering courses had a positive effect on the academic achievement, persistence, and commitment to engineering of students historically underrepresented in engineering. Implementation and support for PLTL that incorporates active learning can promote high academic performance, increased participation in class as well as persistence and retention in engineering pathways.

Mack, A. C. (2007). Differences in academic performance and self-regulated learning based on level of student participation in Supplemental Instruction. (Ph.D. dissertation), University of Central Florida, Orlando

This study examined differences in academic performance and self-regulated learning based on levels of student participation in Supplemental Instruction (SI) sessions in two introductory undergraduate biology and chemistry courses offered at University of Central Florida in the Spring 2006 semester. The sample consisted of 282 students enrolled in the biology class and 451 students enrolled in chemistry. Academic performance was measured using students' final course grades and rates of withdrawal from the courses. The self-regulated learning constructs of motivation, cognition, metacognition, and resource management were measured using the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ). Relationships between students' gender and ethnic background and levels of SI participation were also analyzed in this research. Findings in both biology and chemistry courses revealed a statistically significant decrease in student motivation from beginning to end of semester. In chemistry, frequent SI participants also showed statistically significantly higher levels of motivation at the end of the semester than occasional and non-SI participants. There were no statistically significant gains in cognitive, metacognitive, and resource management strategies from beginning to end of semester. However, statistically significant differences in resource management were observed at the end of the semester among SI attendance groups in both courses. Students in the high SI attendance group were more likely to use learning resources than those who did not participate regularly or did not participate at all. Statistically significant differences in academic performance based on students' SI participation were found in both biology and chemistry courses. Frequent SI participants had significantly higher final percentage grades and were more likely to receive grades of A, B, or C, than those who either did not attend SI regularly of did not participate at all. They were also less likely to withdraw from the course than occasional or non-SI participants. In biology, no relationship between SI participation, gender, and student ethnic background was found. In chemistry, female students were significantly more likely to attend SI regularly than males. Chemistry minority students had significantly higher representation among occasional SI participants. An important implication involved the use of pedagogical approaches that make lecture classrooms more interactive and encourage student motivation and engagement. This study could be replicated in other science and non-science courses that offer SI sessions. Additional factors in the success of SI programs and student motivation can be added, such as SI leaders' experience and major. Follow-up studies on students who completed the courses included in this study can be conducted to determine whether they reenrolled in other science courses, continued attending SI sessions, and gained self-regulated learning skills.

Maxwell, M. C., & Wiles, J. R. (2022). Cyber Peer Led Team Learning (cPLTL) supports marginalized groups, including women, in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). Bioscene: Journal of College Biology Teaching, 48(1), 10-16

Peer Led Team Learning (PLTL) is an active learning model that is particularly effective for improving the academic achievement and retention of students who have been marginalized in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM), such as women, and members of underrepresented minority groups. Cyber Peer Led Team Learning (cPLTL) is a recently developed variation of PLTL that has been transitioned from a face-to-face environment to a synchronous online setting. Studies have found that PLTL and cPLTL students earned comparable educational outcomes in terms of standardized final exam scores and final course grades. Given the benefits of PLTL for marginalized students and the similarities of cPLTL to PLTL, we were interested in understanding the impact that cPLTL had on marginalized groups, including women, in an introductory biology course at a large, research-intensive institution. We found evidence that participating in cPLTL improves the retention of marginalized groups in STEM, and that student perceptions of cPLTL are generally high, especially for women. Participating in cPLTL may have several additional benefits, such as increased motivation, feelings of belonging, comfort in asking questions, and understanding of course content.

McCreary, P. (1994). The Merit Workshop Program in calculus at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign: Description of a successful intervention program for underrepresented groups in mathematics. In A. Solow (Ed.), Preparing for a new calculus: Conference proceedings (pp. 80-84). Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, Mathematics Association of America

This paper reports on Merit Workshop Program at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. This program is based on the Emerging Scholars Program (ESP). Program participants earn nearly a full letter grade higher final course grades in calculus than similar nonparticipants. The target population for service are historically underrepresented student populations in the sciences. Typical program activities are described.

Millar, S. B. (1996). A community approach to learning calculus: Fostering success for underrepresented ethnic minorities in an Emerging Scholars Program of Work. of Work. Department. University of Wisconsin-Madison

This article contains an evaluation of the Emerging Scholars Program (ESP) regarding its utility regarding learning calculus. In addition to focusing on helping students from historically underrepresented populations to be academically successful, ESP also provides a learning community that addresses the problems of isolation and lack of support that nontraditional students may experience.

Mills, S. R. (1999). Academic excellence workshops in chemistry and physics (Uri Treisman) [Dissertation, The Claremont Graduate University, 1999]. Dissertation Abstracts International, 60(06), 1968.

In the mid-1970's, Dr. Uri Treisman, at the University of California, Berkeley, developed an academic excellence workshop program that had important successes in increasing minority student achievement and persistence in calculus. The present dissertation research is an in-depth study of chemistry and physics workshops at the California State Polytechnic University, Pomona. Data for the first, longitudinal component of this study were obtained by tracking to Spring 1998 all workshop minority students, i.e., Latino, African American, and Native American workshop students, a random sample of non-workshop minority students, and a random sample of non-targeted students, i.e., Anglo and Asian students, enrolled in first-quarter General Chemistry or Physics during specific quarters of 1992 or 1993. Data for the second component were obtained by administering questionnaires, conducting interviews, and observing science students during Fall, 1996. Workshop participation was a significant predictor of first-quarter course grade for minority students in both chemistry and physics, while verbal and mathematics Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) scores were not significant predictors of beginning course grade for minority science students. The lack of predictive ability of the SAT and the importance of workshop participation in minority students' beginning science course performance are results with important implications for educators and students. In comparing pre-college achievement measures for workshop and non-targeted students, non-targeted students' mathematics SAT scores were significantly higher than chemistry and physics workshop students' scores. Nonetheless, workshop participation leveled the field as workshop and non-targeted students performed similarly in beginning science courses. Positive impacts of workshop participation on achievement, persistence, efficiency, social integration, and self-confidence support the continued and expanded funding of workshop programs. This research also studied how gender and ethnicity affect attitudes, achievement, and persistence in science courses and mathematics-based majors. College-level females, both minority and non-minority, in science showed no differences from males or were in fact more positive about science than males. However, in interviews, minority females expressed concerns about gender and believed gender to be more important in their science experiences than ethnicity. This research suggests intervention programs to increase the number of females in the science- and technology-based job pipeline can be successful.

Moreno, S. E., & Muller, C. (1999). Success and diversity: The transition through first-year calculus in the university. American Journal of Education, 108(1), 30-57.

This article analyzes the influence at the University of Texas at Austin of calculus performance on choosing a mathematics, science, or engineering major, noting the role of diverse students' participation in the Emerging Scholars Program (ESP) at the University of Texas-Austin. Findings suggest that ESP students earn higher calculus grades than other students and are more likely to enroll in second-semester calculus. While targeted for African-Americans, Latinos, and females, the ESP program is open to all students.

Moreno, S. E., Muller, C., Asera, R., Wyatt, L., & Epperson, J. (1999). Supporting minority mathematics achievement: The Emerging Scholars Program at The University of Texas at Austin. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 5(1), 53-66.

The Emerging Scholars Program (ESP) at the University of Texas at Austin works to improve the academic achievement of minorities and women in calculus, though it is open to all students. Research studies suggest that ESP students are more likely to earn A or B grades in calculus and pass the next course in the academic sequence than non-participants. Six elements of ESP include: increased class time on task; more personal interaction with peers, graduate students, and faculty; fostering of a student community that is supportive; explores more challenging aspects of mathematics; provides academic advising; and allows students to concentrate on and excel in a smaller number of challenging classes since they receive academic credit for participation in the ESP program.

Murphy, T. J., Stafford, K. L., & McCreary, P. (1998). Subsequent course and degree paths of students in a Treisman-style workshop calculus program. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 4(4), 381-396.

The Merit Workshop Calculus Program, based on the Emerging Scholars Program (ESP), was created in 1989 to increase success rates of students from underrepresented populations in mathematics- and science-based academic majors at the University of Illinois, Urbana Champaign. The research study investigated academic performance in first-semester calculus courses, academic performance in courses that require first-semester calculus as a prerequisite, and persistence at the university. Analysis included gender and ethnicity. Positive results were reported for females, African-Americans, Caucasian, and Hispanic students. Dramatic results were reported for females and Hispanics.

Njoku, M. I. A. (2020). Developing a positive attitude towards the learning of biology in secondary scholols through Peer Led Team Learning strategy. International Journal of Science and Research, 9(4).

Learning strategies have a considerable effect when explaining attitude towards science. This study investigated the effects of peer tutoring and peer led team learning strategies on students’ attitude towards Biology. It was guided by two research questions and three hypotheses. The study adopted quasi-experimental design; it was specifically a non-equivalent control group design. The population of the study comprised all senior secondary I students in all the government senior secondary schools in Port-Harcourt metropolis, made up of two local government areas (Obio/Akpor and Port-Harcourt)in Rivers state. Using stratified random sampling and purposive sampling techniques, a multi-stage sampling procedure was employed to select four intact classes from four schools in the study area. Out of these schools, two schools were randomly (by balloting) assigned to peer tutoring learning strategy while the remaining two were assigned to peer led team learning strategy. A total of 182 SSI students form the sample size. Biology Attitudinal Scale (BAS) was used for data collection. Mean and standard deviation were used to provide answers for the research questions while analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to test the hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. The result of the study among others revealed that peer led team learning strategy has significant effect on students’ attitude towards Biology. Although male and female students show difference in mean attitudinal scores in favour of the females, further analysis show that gender has no significant influence on attitude of students towards Biology. Finally, the result of the study also showed that the interaction effect of learning strategy and gender was statistically insignificant for students’ attitude towards Biology. Based on these findings, the researcher among others recommended that Biology students should be encouraged to adopt peer led team learning strategy in learning Biology. Also government should support Biology teachers for regular workshops and training on the development and use of PLTL as instructional strategy in Biology.

Paabo, M., Brijmohan, A., Klubi, T., Evans-Tokaryk, T., & Childs, R. A. (2019). Participation in peer-led Supplemental Instruction Groups, Academic performance, and time to graduation. Journal of College Student Retention Research Theory and Practice

This study investigates the relationship of students’ participation in peer-led Supplemental Instruction groups, called facilitated study groups (FSGs), with their academic performance and years to graduation. In 2017, the full academic records of about 2,400 students who started university between 2005 and 2007 and took Psychology 100 (PSY100) during their first year were analyzed. Students who attended two or more FSG sessions received about 5% higher marks in PSY100 than those who did not, after controlling for gender and tuition status (domestic or international). Students with higher PSY100 marks took less time to graduate and were more likely to have graduated by 2016. After controlling for gender, tuition status, and marks in PSY100, however, no relationship was found between FSG participation and degree completion time.

Packham, G., & Miller, C. (2000). Peer-Assisted Student Support: A new approach to learning. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 24(1), 55-65.

Peer-Assisted Student Support (PASS) is based upon Supplemental Instruction (SI) and is the predominate name used in the United Kingdom. This article provides an overview of PASS with specific information about its use at the University of Glamorgan during the 1997-98 academic year in the Business School. PASS is most popular with female students and those under 21 years of age. Evaluation of the positive impact of PASS participation is limited to the course in which the students attended PASS sessions. Higher rates of PASS attendance was correlated with higher final course grades.

Peterfreund, A. R., Rath, K. A., Xenos, S. P., & Bayliss, F. (2008). The impact of Supplemental Instruction on students in STEM courses: Results from San Francisco State University. Journal of College Student Retention, 9(4), 487-503.

This article reports a research study concerning Supplemental Instruction (SI) at San Francisco State University. The focus was on students enrolled in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) academic degree programs. Data was collected for these students who enrolled in General Chemistry 1, Introduction to Biology 1, introductory statistics, Calculus 1, and/or Calculus II. The study examined students over a six-year time period and found that SI participants earned higher grades and progressed through subsequent courses in an academic sequence more efficiently. High grades for STEM students is especially important since passing grades are insufficient to maintain standards for academic progress. These positive findings occurred despite the SI participants having an average lower academic profile than the nonparticipants. More females participated in SI than their proportion in the class. Male students and students from historically-underrepresented groups in college benefited the most, especially in introductory courses.

Preszler, R. W. (2009). Replacing lecture with Peer-led workshops improves student learning. CBE-Life Education, 8(3), 182-192.

Peer-facilitated workshops enhanced interactivity in an introductory biology course, which led to increased student engagement and learning. This approach was based on the Peer-Led Team Learning (PLTL) model. A majority of students preferred attending two lectures and a workshop each week over attending three weekly lectures. In the workshops, students worked in small cooperative groups as they solved challenging problems, evaluated case studies, and participated in activities designed to improve their general learning skills. Students in the workshop version of the course scored higher on exam questions recycled from preworkshop semesters. Grades were higher over three workshop semesters in comparison with the seven preworkshop semesters. Although males and females benefited from workshops, there was a larger improvement of grades and increased retention by female students; although underrepresented minority (URM) and non-URM students benefited from workshops, there was a larger improvement of grades by URM students. As well as improving student performance and retention, the addition of interactive workshops also improved the quality of student learning: Student scores on exam questions that required higher-level thinking increased from preworkshop to workshop semesters.

Priem, B. J., Chio, C., Boyce, H., Morris, S. A., Kaeli, E., Cole, T. B., . . . Reisberg, R. (2019). A longitudinal study of the effects of pre-college preparation and use of Supplemental Instruction during the first year GPA and retention for women in engineering. Conference Proceedings of the 126th Annual Conference and Exposition American Society for Engineering Education.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of factors including self-reported gender, first semester GPA, college credit earned in high school, participation in study abroad, major, and use of supplemental instruction (SI) on retention and academic success of 719 undergraduate students who enrolled in engineering during the fall of 2013 at Northeastern University. Our previous research has shown that use of SI in high school resulted in higher course grades and higher GPAs through a student’s fourth semester. This study was undertaken to evaluate the impact of SI and other factors on retention and academic performance over a five-year period. Data for gender, pre-matriculation college credit, cumulative GPA, major, and registration status at the end of each semester from Fall 2013 through Summer 2018 were obtained from the University for 211 female and 508 male engineering students who entered at the start of the Fall 2013 semester. Data for participation in group and one-on-one tutoring was available from attendance logs for these forms of SI offered to first-year students. This information was analyzed for the effects of gender, number of college credits earned in high school, and participation in first-year SI on retention, graduation rate, GPA, and frequency of both changein-major and study abroad after each semester. We found that male and female students’ GPAs at the end of their first semester at Northeastern University correlated positively with not only their fourth semester GPAs, but also their graduation GPAs. Females had higher five-year rates of graduation, as well as higher mean GPAs at graduation compared to males. The amount of college credit earned in high school influenced students’ academic performance in college. A lack of pre-matriculation college credit had a significant negative effect on males, with males without pre-college credit having lower retention and graduation rates and lower GPAs at every time point compared to their male peers who entered with college credit. In contrast, the retention and graduation rates, as well as GPAs of females without pre-enrollment college credit did not differ significantly from their female peers with credits. Overall, females used SI at higher rates than their male counterparts. Furthermore, females entering without college credit used first-year SI at markedly higher rates than their female peers who entered with college credit and male counterparts who entered with and without college credit. In summary, these results show a link between first semester GPA and graduation rates, demonstrate that college-level coursework taken during high school is correlated to college graduation GPA for males, and suggest that SI usage during the first semester of college by females without college credit may explain why females achieve higher levels of academic success throughout their undergraduate careers.

Quitadamo, I. J., Brahler, C. J., & Crouch, G. J. (2009). Peer-led Team Learning: A prospective method for increasing critical thinking in undergraduate science courses. Science Educator, 18(1), 29-39.

Peer-Led Team Learning (PLTL) is a specific form of small group learning recognized by Project Kaleidoscope as best practice pedagogy (Varma-Nelson, 2004). PLTL was first developed by Woodward, Gosser, and Weiner (1993) as an integrated method that promoted discourse and creative problem solving in chemistry at the City College of New York. It is characterized by a cohort-based social learning structure whereby trained undergraduates, or "peer leaders", guide 4-8 less experienced peers toward conceptual understanding through group-focused science and math problem solving. This study examines the impact of PLTL on critical thinking gains in science and math courses at a research university in the Pacific Northwest. Results of this study show that PLTL has a small but positive impact on critical thinking gains in some science courses, and that it improves grade performance and retention in science and math courses, particularly for females. While math students did not show significant critical thinking gains, it is premature to conclude that PLTL does not promote critical thinking in math. Many factors affect the development of critical thinking skills, and more study is necessary to discover their influence. These results indicate PLTL has potential to improve undergraduate critical thinking. (Contains 2 figures and 3 tables.)

Rabitory, E. R., Hoffman, J. L., & Person, D. R. (2015). Supplemental Instruction: The effect of demographic and academic preparation variables on community college student academic achievement in STEM-related fields. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 14(3).

This study evaluated variables associated with academic preparation and student demographics as predictors of academic achievement through participation in supplemental instruction (SI) programs for community college students in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) fields. The findings suggest a differential impact of SI outcome for students based on gender and ethnicity. Furthermore, the study underscores the importance of evaluating the influence of academic achievement and student demographic variables when considering the development of SI programs on community college campuses.

Rabitov, E. R., Hoffman, J. L., & Person, D. R. (2005). Supplemental Instruction: The effect of demographic and academic preparation variables on community college student academic achievement in STEM-related fields. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education.

This study evaluated variables associated with academic preparation and student demographics as predictors of academic achievement through participation in supplemental instruction (SI) programs for community college students in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) fields. The findings suggest a differential impact of SI outcome for students based on gender and ethnicity. Furthermore, the study underscores the importance of evaluating the influence of academic achievement and student demographic variables when considering the development of SI programs on community college campuses.

Part Four

Rafi, F., & Karagiannis, N. (2014). A comparative study of African-American males vs females at a minority institute of higher learning and the role of Supplemental Instruction. Journal of Peer Learning, 6(1), 76-85.

The purpose of this paper is to draw a comparison of high attrition rates among African-American males versus African-American females in higher education and examine the role of Supplemental Instruction (SI). The study was conducted at a minority institution (Winston-Salem State University) where African-American students are in the majority. For this study, data was utilised from Cooperative Institutional Research Program (CIRP) surveys, Accuplacer placement test scores of incoming freshmen populations, and academic assistance pursued through the SI Program by African-American male and African-American female students. Primary sources and available statistical information were also used. Comparisons were made between the study habits of African-American male and African-American female students and their implications for the retention rates of these students. These comparisons are presented in the findings section of the paper. Brief conclusions end the paper.

Stanich, C. A., Pelch, M. A., Theobald, E. J., & Freeman, S. (2018). A new approach to Supplementary Instruction narrows achievement and affect gaps for underrepresented minorities, first-generation students, and women. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 19(3), 846-866

To help students who traditionally underperform in general chemistry, we created a Supplementary Instruction (SI) course and called it the STEM-Dawgs Workshops. These workshops are an extension of the Peer-led Team Learning (PLTL) SI. In addition to peer-facilitated problem-solving, we incorporated two components inspired by learning sciences: (1) training in research-based study skills, and (2) evidence-based interventions targeting psychological and emotional support. Here we use an explanatory mixed methods approach to measure the impact of the STEM-Dawgs Workshops, with a focus on four sub-populations that are historically underrepresented in Chemistry: underrepresented minorities, females, low-income students,and first-generation students. Specifically, we compared three groups of students in the same General Chemistry course: students in general chemistry and not the workshops (‘‘Gen Chem students’’), students inthe workshops (‘‘STEM-Dawgs’’), and students whovolunteered for the workshops but did not get in (‘‘Volunteers’’). We tested hypotheses with regression models and conducted a series of focus group interviews with STEM-Dawgs. Compared to the Gen Chem population, the STEM-Dawg and Volunteer populations were enriched with students in all four under-represented sub-populations. Compared to Volunteers, STEM-Dawgs had increased exam scores, sense of belonging, perception of relevance, self-efficacy, and emotional satisfaction about chemistry. URM STEM-Dawgs had lower failure rates, and exam score achievement gaps that impacted first-generation and female Gen Chem students were eliminated inthe STEM-Dawg population. Finally, female STEM-Dawgs had an increased sense of belonging and higher emotional satisfaction about chemistry than women volunteers. Focus groupssuggested that successes came in part from the supportive peer-learning environment and the relationships with peer facilitators.Together, our results indicate that this supplementaryinstruction model can raise achievement and improve affect for students who are underrepresented in chemistry.

Stockly, S. K. (2000). Performance of minority students in economics: An econometric evaluation of Supplemental Instruction [Dissertation, University of Texas at Austin, 1999]. Dissertation Abstracts International, 60(12), 4541.

The scarcity of minority scholars in Economics is well-recognized, though few studies have addressed the issue. This dissertation identifies the introductory coursework in economics as a significant stumbling block for African American and Hispanic students and analyzes the effects of an extensive Supplemental Instruction (SI) program initiated to improve minority student achievement in these courses. Data were collected for over 9,000 students enrolled during two academic years, 1990-1991 (prior to the inception of SI) and 1993-1994 (after the program was fully operational). The data include independent variables that measure or proxy student-specific characteristics, academic maturity, relative high school quality, and institutional characteristics. Econometric testing of probit and ordered logit models indicate that minority students earn average grades that are significantly lower than those earned by their non-minority counterparts. Decomposition methodology, derived from analysis of wage differentials in Labor Economics, is used to quantify the gap in average grades into proportions that are explained and unexplained by the data. The analysis of the effects of SI on student performance reveals that women and minority students attend the adjunct sessions at higher rates than other students and that students who chose to participate in the program earn average grades that are significantly higher than those earned by students who either chose not to participate or were in course sections where SI was not available. Use of the decomposition methodology to control for the effects of self-selection indicates the SI program offers real value added. Students in the data set were followed for up to four years after the targeted semesters, allowing for an analysis of the long-term effects of participation in SI. Probit and ordered logit models tested whether SI enhanced student interest in taking additional coursework in economics, whether students who participated in SI were then able to achieve significantly higher scores in subsequent coursework, and whether the skills gained through participation in SI helped students achieve higher retention and graduation rates. Overall, the effects of SI in the longer term are positive and statistically significant.

Szal, R. (2018). Gender, statistical anxiety, and Supplemental Instruction Conference Proceedings of the Developments in business simulation and experimential learning.

Supplemental Instruction (SI) programs, which have been used in colleges and universities since the 1970’s, are viewed as a cost-effective method of delivering peer-assisted instruction to students in courses that traditionally experience high failure and drop rates. In a previous analysis of students in an introductory business statistics class at a mid-sized university in the Southwest, it was found that SI was very important in a student’s grade determination, especially in view of the fact that the course is designed as blended learning meeting one time per week. The analysis also seemed to indicate that there may well be significant differences as between men and women in terms of the effect of SI attendance on grade determination. The present paper investigates the differences between males and females in the course, and concludes that, while both men and women suffer from a fear of statistics (and mathematical courses in general) upon entering the course, their reactions to the anxiety are very different. While men appear to be better prepared than women when beginning the course, at the end of the semester, there is no significant difference in final grades. Several possible reasons for this are given, and the results may hold important lessons for encouraging greater participation of females in STEM activities from an early age.

Tavera, G. (2012). How can female students in a math workshop increase their problem-solving capabilities? Conference Proceedings of the Peer-led Team Learning International Society Inaugural Conference, Brooklyn

The way women perceive their surroundings plays an important role in how they behave, think, and express themselves (Belenky et al., 1986). During workshop sessions I observed different attitudes among female and male students. That is why this topic of females in mathematics caught my attention. Also, as a female, I have been through similar situations as other females in a classroom setting.

Tenney, A. D. (2002). What works in institutionalizing student centered teaching methods: Peer-led Team Learning. Conference Proceedings of the 224th American Chemical Society National Meeting, Boston

Peer-led Team Learning (PLTL) has been used at the University of Portland (OR) to support higher student achievement in introductory science courses since Fall 1999. PLTL has now been expanded to nine faculty members in three academic disciplines. This paper discusses the critical factors needed to implement and support the PLTL program. Preliminary studies suggest that the academic culture has been positively impacted by PLTL, especially regarding female students.

Thiry, H., Hug, S., & Barker, L. (2008). CAHSI Year 2 annual evaluation report: Recruiting, retaining, and advancing Hispanics in computing. University of Colorado. Bolder, Colorado.

CAHSI institutions have focused their efforts on the recruitment, retention, and advancement of Hispanic computer science students. In 2007, the seven CAHSI computer science departments graduated 149 Hispanic computer science majors. Excluding the University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez, which is 100% Hispanic, 45% of computer science majors at CAHSI institutions were Hispanic. In addition, two CAHSI institutions graduated an above-average proportion of women in computer science. Three institutions serve other underrepresented minorities as well, specifically African-American computer science students. When compared to other Hispanic serving institutions, the enrollment of Hispanic computer science students at CAHSI institutions is closer to parity with the overall enrollment of Hispanic students at their schools. However, most CAHSI schools have opportunities for growth in this area. The Alliance has implemented multiple interventions to enhance the recruitment, retention, and advancement of Hispanic computer science students at participating institutions. The CS-0 course is intended to help CAHSI institutions recruit and retain more Hispanics into the computer science major. At every institution, the percentage of Hispanics enrolled in CS-O is higher than the percentage of Hispanics enrolled in the CS major, suggesting that CS-0 is an effective method for recruiting more Hispanics into the department. Although the recruitment, retention, and advancement of women into computing are not explicit goals of CAHSI, CS-0 has also been successful in enrolling women in CS-0. At every institution except one, the percentage of women undergraduates enrolled in CS-0 is higher than the percentage of women enrolled in the CS major. Though the CS-0 course has attracted more Hispanics and women than are presently enrolled in CAHSI computer science departments, it is too early to tell whether these students will continue in computer science. To determine the retention rate of CS-0 students, the evaluation team will track whether these students enroll in CS1 in subsequent semesters. In addition, the enrollment of Hispanics in many CAHSI computer science departments is lower than the enrollment of Hispanics in the institution, suggesting that there is room for growth in the recruitment of Hispanics into the computer science major. The CS-0 course was successful in boosting students’ confidence in their programming abilities. Students who had not programmed a computer made the greatest gains in confidence. Women gained greater confidence in computer programming than men. All racial/ethnic groups, including Hispanics, exhibited strong increases in confidence in computer programming. Indeed, the gains in computer programming confidence across all demographic variables, such as gender and ethnicity, suggest that the CS-O course served to boost the confidence of most students. Peer-Led Team Learning in “gatekeeper” courses aims to increase student retention in the major by providing near-peer role models to boost their confidence and knowledge. Sessions were informal and involved group work to develop relationships among students in the course, said to influence student persistence in the major. Overall, students found the PLTL sessions to be fun, interesting, and helpful. Students, particularly Hispanic students, gained confidence in their computing abilities through PLTL sessions, and leaders reported confidence gains as well. Being a peer leader increased students’ communication, teaching, leadership, and interpersonal skills. Hispanics had slightly better gains in skills than other peer leaders. Students were generally confident in their skills as a peer leader, particularly in their ability to help students understand concepts, to motivate students, and to effectively communicate. Students’ experiences as peer leaders also increased their aspirations to have a computing career and, to a lesser extent, their aspirations to attend graduate school in computing. Peer leading had a more positive influence on the aspirations of women and Hispanics. Being a peer leader also enhanced students’ disciplinary and conceptual knowledge. In part, this increase in knowledge and confidence contributed to some students’ motivation to pursue graduate studies.

Thomas, G., Roche, L., Brocato, M., & McGuire, S. (2019). Supplemental Instruction levels the playing field in STEM at Louisiana State University. In Z. S. Wilson-Kennedy, G. S. Byrd, E. Kennedy & H. T. Frierson (Eds.), Diversity in Higher Education (Vol. 22): Emerald Publishing

The Center for Academic Success (CAS) at Louisiana State University (LSU), certified as a Center of Excellence by the National College Learning Center Association, has utilized Supplemental Instruction© (SI) for the past 20 years to provide student support for historically difficult courses – those courses with D, F, or withdrawal rates of greater than 30%. In this model, peers called “SI leaders” facilitate study sessions outside of class time to help the enrolled students develop effective learning strategies and better understand and master course concepts. SI relies upon collaboration with faculty and is supported by cognitivism and social constructivism learning theories. Benefits of the successful model include supporting students to become self-directed independent learners, reducing the stigma associated with using academic support and reducing the demands for tutoring. Outcomes observed at LSU include positive correlations between the course-passing rates and six-year graduation rates of women, underrepresented minorities and first-generation college students who participated in SI compared to the peers who participate less frequently and those who do not participate.

Tran, C., Hartmann, K., Olsker, T. C., & Bonsangue, M. (2016). The impact of Supplemental Instruction on the SI leader. Supplemental Instruction Journal, 2(1), 6-18.

This study conducted at California State University, Fullerton, examined the impact of SI upon the leaders. Variables included sex, first generation status, and underrepresented minority group status. Men increased incresed confidence and communication effectiveness at higher rates than women. The underrepresented group reported higher ability to handle student conflict and communicate with peer than majority students.

Van Dusen, B., Langdon, L., & Otero, V. K. (2015). Learning Assistant Supported Student Outcomes (LASSO) study initial findings. Conference Proceedings of the Physics Education Research Conference, College Park

This study investigates how faculty, student, and course features are linked to student outcomes in Learning Assistant (LA) supported courses. Over 4,500 students and 17 instructors from 13 LA Alliance member institutions participated in the study. Each participating student completed an online concept inventory at the start (pre) and end (post) of their term. The physics concept inventories included Force and Motion Concept Evaluation (FMCE) and the Brief Electricity and Magnetism Assessment (BEMA). Concepts inventories from the fields of biology and chemistry were also included. Our analyses utilize hierarchical linear models that nest student level data (e.g. pre/post scores and gender) within course level data (e.g. discipline and course enrollment) to build models that examine student outcomes across institutions and disciplines. We report findings on the connections between students' outcomes and their gender, race, and time spent working with LAs as well as instructors' experiences with LAs.

Van Dusen, B., & Nissen, J. M. (2017). Systemic inequities in introductory physics courses: The impacts of Learning Assistants. Conference Proceedings of the Physics Education Research Conference, Cincinnat

Creating equitable performance outcomes among students is a focus of many instructors and researchers. One focus of this effort is examining disparities in physics student performance across genders, which is a well-established problem. Another less common focus is disparities across racial and ethnic groups, which may have received less attention due to low representation rates making it difficult to identify gaps in their performance. In this investigation we examined associations between Learning Assistant (LA) supported courses and improved equity in student performance. We built Hierarchical Linear Models of student performance to investigate how performance differed by gender and by race/ethnicity and how LAs may have moderated those differences. Data for the analysis came from pre-post concept inventories in introductory mechanics courses collected through the Learning About STEM Student Outcomes (LASSO) platform. Our models show that gaps in performance across genders and races/ethnicities were similar in size and increased from pre to post instruction. LA-support is meaningfully and reliably associated with improvement in overall student performance but not with shifts in within-course performance gaps.

Van Dusen, B., White, J.-S. S., & Roualdes, E. A. (2016). The impact of Learning Assistants on inequities in physics student outcomes. Conference Proceedings of the Physics Education Research Conference, Sacramento

This study investigates how Learning Assistants (LAs) and related course features are associated with inequities in student learning in introductory university physics courses. 2,868 physics students' paired pre- and post-test scores on concept inventories from 67 classes in 16 LA Alliance member institutions are examined in this investigation. The concept inventories included the Force Concept Inventory, Force and Motion Conceptual Evaluation, and the Conceptual Survey of Electricity and Magnetism. Our analyses include a multiple linear regression model that examines the impact of student (e.g. gender and race) and course level variables (e.g. presence of LAs and Concept Inventory used) on student learning outcomes (Cohen's d effect size) across classroom contexts. The presence of LAs was found to either remove or invert the traditional learning gaps between students from dominant and non-dominant populations. Significant differences in student performance were also found across the concept inventories.

Varol, H., & Carol, C. (2014). Improving female student retention in computer science during the first programming course. International Journal of Information and Educaiton Technology, 4(5), 394-398.

This paper is an evaluation study to improve female student retention in Computer Science during the first programming course. Although, colleges are using variety of ways to attract female students to continue their studies in Computer Science, the number of female students is decreasing in the major. Therefore, we have employed two survey studies to learn more about the lack of supported items in the major and tried to address most of those issues in the classroom to see the change in student’s feeling about Computer Science. Moreover, we support some of our suggestions not only by the survey results, but also students’ performance from the course. We observed that lack of communication among students and with faculty, primitive programming editors, and not well prepared course materials are some of the reasons for the decrease in female student retention.

Warner, J. M. (2008). Supplemental Instruction for non-science majors biology students: Meanings and influences on science identities for women. (Ph.D. dissertation), University of North Carolina at Greensboro

The purpose of this study was to examine the meanings women make of their participation in a Supplemental Instruction (SI) program associated with a postsecondary non-majors biology course. Interview and survey data were utilized to determine why women attended SI, the affordances provided by regular SI participation, how women depicted the learning environment of SI, and how women described science as they experienced it in SI. Additional interviews were conducted with a sub-population of participants who regularly utilized SI to provide an understanding of the role SI participation played in terms of access to science identities for women who changed their majors, minors, or concentration within an education major to biology as a result of their experiences in non-majors biology and SI. The results of this study suggest that the SI experience provides more than just a means to increase grades for women who participate regularly. The supportive and safe climate of the SI environment set a comfort level for women that increased their competence and confidence in biology. The SI experience increased interest in biology and afforded the opportunity for women to be recognized by others, and to recognize themselves, for their science abilities. Additionally, for a small number of women, their experiences in non-majors biology and SI facilitated a shift in science identities that led the women to immigrate into science

Warren, B. Z. (1997, October 10-11, 1997). Personality, learning style, gender, and ethnic characteristics of students attending Supplemental Instruction. Conference Proceedings of the Annual Teaching/Learning Conference, Ashland, KY. ERIC database. (ED413019).

A study was conducted to gather information on students participating in Supplemental Instruction (SI) at the University of Central Florida in Spring 1997. Using Long's Personality Checklist, 163 students classified themselves as aggressive-dependent, aggressive-dependent, passive-independent, or passive-dependent. Kolb's Learning Style Inventory was administered to the group. Findings included: (1) Although the majority of SI students were White and female with aggressive-dependent personality styles, science students displayed assimilator and converger learning styles, while non-science students displayed accommodator learning styles. (2) Hispanics most commonly identified their learning style as assimilator. (3) Black and Hispanic students showed the least inclination toward the converger learning style, while it was one of the main styles displayed by White students.

Wisniewski, E. O., Shapiro, R. L., Kaeli, E., Coletti, K. B., DiMilla, P. A., & Reisberg, R. (2015). The impact of Supplemental Instruction on the performance of male and female engineers in a freshmen chemistry course. Paper presented at the American Society for Engineering Education Annual 122nd Conference, Seattle, WA.

This study used statistical analysis to examine correlations between first year engineering students’ use of SI and their performance in a required general chemistry course at Northeastern University. Overall we found that students who used SI were more motivated in General Chemistry than their counterparts. We also draw the following specific conclusions from our data: Students who were more confident that they would receive a high grade in General Chemistry at the beginning of the course had a higher average grade threshold for seeking SI. Students who sought SI exhibited a positive correlation between grade threshold for seeking help outside the classroom and final grade received. Females who used SI had significantly higher grades than females who did not. SI in the form of Chem Central, the Connections Chemistry Review, and the COE Tutoring Office were all found to have the potential to have a significant positive impact on students’ grades. Students who did not use SI were significantly more likely to skip lecture than students who do attend SI. Increased absenteeism in lecture was associated with lower final grades in both fall 2013 and fall 2014. Females were more likely to attend lecture regularly than males. When extra credit incentives were offered to attend lecture, both genders skipped significantly fewer lectures and received significantly higher grades. We believe the results we have found regarding relationships between students’ use of SI and their success in General Chemistry for Engineers can be applied to improve SI across the freshman engineering curriculum. For example, as Chem Central, the Connections Chemistry Review, and the COE tutoring office were all found to have a positive impact on students’ grades, resources like these could be created to help freshman students in their other courses. Further study of possible interaction effects among these and other variables for which we have data are ongoing. Our results also show that the students who often skip lecture are the students who do not take advantage of resources for SI and receive lower course grades. These may be students who need additional advising and mentoring during their freshman year in order to succeed. The issues raised are important topics of focus for future work in order to gain a further understanding of the impact of SI on freshman engineering students.

Young, C. A. (2015). Determining the relationship of Supplemental Instruction to student attitudes. (Ph.D. dissertation), Texas A & M

Attendance patterns of students enrolled in Supplemental Instruction (SI) study groups were examined to determine if attendance could explain outcomes related to student success. Students took the College Learning Effectiveness Inventory (CLEI) early in the semester and again at the end of the semester to measure student attitudes and behaviors that are usually associated with student success. Mean scores were calculated for each participant in the study fo each administration of the CLEI. Change scores were calculated by subtracting mean scores of the second administration from mean scores of the first administration. Student attendance at SI groups was reported at the time of the second administration of the survey. Comparisons were made to determine whether there were differences in gains on mean scores on scales of the CLEI based on SI attendance, as well as ethnicity and gender. The results of the study showed no significant differences in change scores on the CLEI scales based upon SI attendance. There were also no significant changes based upon SI attendance and ethnicity or gender.

Zumdahl, S. A. (1996). Mission impossible? Improving retention of science majors among minorities and women. Journal of Chemical Education, 73, 266-267
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This article describes the Merit Program for Emerging Scholars (MPES) in chemistry at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. MPES was established to improve retention of science majors among students of color and women. Research studies suggests that participants outperform nonparticipants.